I.
Introduction and Project Description
II.
Chemical compositions of Jupiter and its moons
III.
Mathematical, orbital, and compositional data
IV.
Historical and cultural perspectives in regards
to Galileo and Kepler
V.
The naming, history and mythology of Jupiter
and its moons
VI.
Observation data
VII.
Bibliography
I. Introduction and Project Description
Our purpose of studying Jupiter and its moons is to become familiar with
its history, mythology, cultural references, chemical compostion, mathematical
data, where it is in the pre-dawn sky of spring 1998 and how to view it
from home. Why would we want to know this? We are interested in learning
how the chemical compostion of the Universe evolved-- what conditions are
necessary for life, as well as what ancient peoples thought as they looked
up into the night sky and how what we know today comparedwith that of the
first scientific discoveries.
II.
Chemical compositions of Jupiter and its moons
Jupiter gives off more heat than it receives from the sun and its atmosphere
contains H2
, He, NH3
, CH4, and H2S. Zonal east-west winds driven by energy
from the interior as opposed to sunlight cause Jupiter's banded appearance
and lack of lightning anticipates that Jupiter's atmosphere contains little
water. Its magnetosphere is filled with plasma from Io, the most volcanically
active body in the solar system.
If all the oxygen on Europa was compressed to the pressure of Earth's atmosphere,
it would fill about 12 kingdome-sized stadiums. Europa is five times farther
from the sun than Earth, its temperature is -230° F / -145° C and
its oxygen atmosphere is produced by non-biological processes. Its icy
surface is exposed to sunlight and is impacted by dust and charged particles
trapped in Jupiter's magnetic field. The frozen water ice on the surface
produces water vapor and gaseous fragments of water molecules. Forming
molecular hydrogen and oxygen, the lightweight hydrogen escapes into space
and the heavier oxygen slowly leaks into space.
Io apparently has a heavy iron and iron sulfide core surrounded by silicate,
its magmas are silica rich and iron poor. At some point, Io was hot and
molten. Io's atmosphere contains mostly sulfur dioxide, and arises primarily
from plumes of volcanic activity which affects plasma mass, plasma transport
and large scale electric fields in the Jovian magnetosphere.
Ganymede's spectra indicates strong water ice bands and the presence of
hydrated minerals in its atmosphere. Callisto's spectra show weak water
ice features and dominant structures of hydrated minerals and possibly
CO2 in small concentrations. Callisto has a static, ancient
and icy surface, and some of the largest and oldest impacts in the solar
system.( Data: Suess; Ip; McCord; Briggs & Fredrick).
III. Mathematical, orbital, and compositional Data
JUPITER
Jupiter is by far the largest planet in the solar system. It is so massive
that it came relatively close to becoming a star. It is larger than all
the
planets in the solar system combined (Kaufmann 156), yet it would
still need 75 times more mass than it has to have attained stardom.
Jupiter has a chemical composition similar to that of the sun. It is 90
percent Hydrogen and 10 percent Helium with small amounts of
methane, ammonia and water( http://seds.lpl.arizona...)Its cloudy surface
is mostly ammonia,
with dark zones and light bands caused from convectio
Jupiter's powerful gravitational pull, and its location near the asteroid
belt may account for the outer eight of the planet's impressive
collection of sixteen moons. Some believe that the eight inner moons,
which include the Galilean satellites, were formed when Jupiter, as a
massive protoplanet began hydrodynamic collapse.( Morrison, 871). As this
process
occurred, the inner moons were formed by accretional processes
(Morrison 872). The most notable of these are moons five through
eight, or the Galilean satellites; Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
In addition to it's moons, Jupiter sports a dark ring of dust and rock.
Physically Jupiter has an equatorial diameter of 142,984 km. It's
mass is It rotates once in less than half of an Earth day, and it takes
11.86 Earth years to complete its sidereal period. Jupiter's semimajor
axis in Astronomical units is 5.2028. (data, Kaufmann 391).
Jupiter's four innermost moons are Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and
Thebe.
METIS
Metis, the first moon, was discovered by Stephen Synott in 1979. As
of today we still know very little about Metis. It has a diameter of
approximately 40 kilometers, and it's mass is 9.56 *10^16 kilograms.
Metis' sidereal period in days is .294. That means that Metis is
moving at close to 31.57 kilometers per second, at a distance of
128,000 kilometers from Jupiter. Metis is thought to be one of the
replenishing sources for the dark rocks that make up Jupiter's ring.
(data, Kaufmann 392, www.hawastsoc.org/solar/eng/metis.htm).
ADRASTEA
Adrastea was discovered in 1979 by a graduate student working under
Synott, his name was Jewitt. This moon is also believed to help
supply the rings of Jupiter with additional rocks (Morrison). Very little
is known of the chemical composition and the surface qualities of
Adrastea. It's diameter is approximately 30 kilometers, and mass is
1.9*10^16. Adrastea's sidereal period is .298 days, and she orbits
Jupiter at a speed of 31.45 kilometers per second, at a distance of
129,000 km.(data, Morrison 879, Kaufmann 392).
AMALTHEA
Amalthea was discovered from Lick Observatory through a 36 inch
refractor by Edward Emmerson Barnard. Amalthea has a surface that
is believed to be composed of mostly sulfur and simple sulfur
compounds, possibly coming from it's close vicinity to Io's volcanic
plumes. Amalthea is the reddest object in the solar system, and this is
due to sulfur on the surface of the moon (Morrison 166). This moon
is located 181,000 miles from Jupiter and has a sidereal period of .498
earth days. It's speed of orbit is 26.47 km. per second. Amalthea has
a diameter of 270* 170´ 150, her odd proportions made more clear
being that she closely resembles a potato, or more flatteringly,
Phobos. The mass of the moon is 7.17*10^18 kilograms.(Data Kaufmann, 392:
and www.hawastock.org...)
THEBE
Thebe, the fourth moon of Jupiter was discovered by Stephen Synott
in 1979. Thebe is located 222,000 kilometers from Jupiter, and has an
sidereal period of .674 days. Thebe's orbital speed is 23.93 kilometers
per second. Thebe is relatively small and potato shaped, having a
diameter of 100 kilometers, and a mass of 7.77*10 ^18 kilograms.
Little else is known of the moon's composition. ( Data, Kaufmann,392
www.jpl.nasa.gov...)
Jupiter's Galilean satellites are moons five through eight. They are Io,
Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. These Moons were discovered by
Galileo Galilei in 1610
IO
Io is the fifth moon of Jupiter. Io is similar in size to our moon(www.hawastock...)
With a diameter of 3630 kilometers, and a mass of 8.94*10^22 kilograms.
Io is the most volcanically active body in our solar system, releasing
more than one trillion tons of matter each year (Kaufmann 164).
Much of this matter may account for Io's unique coloration and the
coloration of some of the inner satellites. Io is one of the few moons
known to have a thin atmosphere. Io has a synchronous rotation
around Jupiter, orbiting at a distance of 421,000 kilometers, and at a
speed of 17.34 kilometers per second. Io has a sidereal period of 1.76
days.
(http:// seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/nineplanets/io.htm)
EUROPA
Europa is also similar in size to our own moon, having a diameter of
3138 kilometers, and a mass of 4.8* 10^22 kilograms. Europa is the
sixth moon of Jupiter. Europa has a "young and active surface.
composed of ice and silicate rock." It has a very smooth surface
covered with dark streaks believed to be expansion cracks from it's
subsurface ocean. Europa is one of four other moons in our system
that has a thin oxygen atmosphere. The oxygen comes from sunlight
and charged particles hitting Europa's icy surface.
(http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/nineplanets/Jupiter.html).
Europa orbits Jupiter at a distance of 670,900 kilometers, at speed of
13.74 kilometers per second. Europa's sidereal period is 3.55 days
(data, Kaufmann 391; Morrison 851; www.hawastock.org).
GANYMEDE
Ganymede, the seventh moon of Jupiter, is the largest satellite in the
solar system. It is larger than both Mercury and Pluto (Kaufmann
165). It has a diameter of 5268 kilometers, and a mass of 1.48*
10^23 kilograms. It has a thin atmosphere similar to that of Europa. It
is composed of a molten iron and sulfur core, with a rocky silicate
and ice mantle
(http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/nineplanets/ganymede.html.).
Ganymede orbits Jupiter synchronously at a distance of 1,070,000
kilometers, and with a speed of 10.9 kilometers per second. It's
sidereal period is 7.15 days. (Kaufmann, 391).
CALLISTO
Callisto is the eighth moon of Jupiter, and the second largest. It has
a
mass of 1.07*10^23 Kilograms, and a diameter of 4806 kilometers.
Callisto sports the oldest and most cratered surface of any solar
system body
(http://hakea.ntu.edu/webpages/newey/moon/callisto.html). Callisto's
cold ( 155- 80K) hard surface is a mixture of ice and silicate rock.
Callisto's synchronous orbit is 1,883,00 kilometers from Jupiter, it's
speed is 8.21 kilometers per second. Callisto has a sidereal period of
16.6 days.(http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu)
The four moons that orbit synchronously outside of
Callisto's path
are Leda, Himalia, Lysithea, and Elara. Very little is known about
these moons, and they are believed to be captured asteroids. Even
their mass and size are best estimates.
LEDA
Leda is among the smallest moons in the solar system.
Distance from Jupiter: 11,094,000 kilometers
Diameter: 16 kilometers
Mass: 5.68* 10^15 kilograms
Orbit speed: 3.38 km/sec
Sidereal period: 238.7 days ( Data, http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu;
Kaufmann, 391)
HIMALIA
Distance from Jupiter: 11,480,000 kilometers
Diameter: 180 kilometers
Mass: 9.56* 10^18 kilograms
Orbit Speed: 3.34 km/sec
Sidereal period: 250.5 d( Data, http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu; Kaufmann,
391)
LYSITHEA
Distance from Jupiter: 11,720,00 kilometers
Diameter: 40 km
Mass: 7.77*10^16 kilograms
Orbit speed: 3.29 km/sec
Sidereal period: 259 days (Data, http:seds.lpl.arizona.edu; Kaufmann, 391)
ELARA
Distance from Jupiter:11,737,000 km
Diameter: 80 km
Mass: 1.3*10^7 kg
Orbit speed: 3.29km/sec
Sidereal period: 259.6 days (Data, http://sed.lpl.arizona.edu; Kaufmann,391)
The remaining four of Jupiter's moons are Anake, Carme, Pasiphae,
and Sinope. They are very small and much information about them
still remains unknown, and much of this information is only
approximate. It is believed that they are the remains of a single
captured asteroid that was captured by Jupiter, and broken into bits
(www.jpl.nasa.gov).
These moons maintain highly elliptical and retrograde orbits about
Jupiter.(Morrison, 517)
ANAKE
Distance from Jupiter: 21,200,000 km
Diameter: 30 km
Mass: 3.82* 10^16 kg
Orbit speed: -2.44 km/sec
Sidereal period: 631 days ( Data, www.hawastock.org;
Kaufmann391)
CARME
Distance from Jupiter: 22,600,000 km
Diameter: 44 km
Mass: 9.56*10^16 kg
Orbit speed: -2.37 km/sec
Sidereal period: 692 days (Data Kaufmann, 391; http:seds.lpl.arizona.edu)
PASIPHAE
Distance from Jupiter: 23,500,00 km
Diameter: 70 km
Mass: 1.91* 10^17 kg
Orbit speed: -2.32 km/sec
Sidereal period: 735 days ( Data, Kaufmann, 391: http://seds.arizona.edu)
SINOPE
Distance from Jupiter:23,700,000
Diameter: 40km
Mass: 7.77*10^16 kg
Orbit speed: -2.27 km/sec
Sidereal period: 758 days(Data, Kaufmann, 391; http://seds.arizona.edu)
IV. Historical and cultural perspectives in regards to Galileo and Kepler
A Short Biography of Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy January 8, 1564. His father was
Vincencio Galilei, a distinguished musician and writer. Galileo was an
educated man, his primary interests being physics, astronomy, mechanics,
and mathematics. He studied theology and medicine before his interests
in mathematics led him in that direction. He was an accomplished inventor,
teacher and philosopher, but I will attempt to focus primarily on his work
regarding astronomy, particularly his discovery of the now named Gallilean
satellites(http:www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/discovery.html.).
Hans
Lipperty invented a crude telescope in 1608 (Crowe 159), and by 1609 Galileo
had honed this device into a nine-power instrument. He was then beginning
his observations to be included in his stunningly received
Sidereus
Nunicus, or the Sidereal Messenger. On January 7, 1610 he first observed
what he believed to be stars.
". strung out in a line through the planet Jupiter. The next evening, these
stars seemed to have moved the wrong way, which caught his attention. Galileo
continued to observe the stars and Jupiter for the next week. On January
11th, a fourth star (which later would turn out to be Ganymede) appeared.
After a week, Galileo had observed that the four stars never left the vicinity
of Jupiter and appeared to be carried along with the planet and that they
changed their positions with respect to each other and to Jupiter. Finally
Galileo determined that what he was observing were not stars, but planetary
bodies that were in orbit around Jupiter. This discovery provided evidence
in support of the Copernican system and showed that everything did not
revolve around the Earth."
(
www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/discovery.html)
The names of the four satellites were numbered, and collectively called
the Medicean planets until the mid-1800's. Because of the popularity of
Sidereus Nunicus, Galileo received many requests from royalty and the upper
classes for telescopes of their own. He refused payment for many of these
scopes thereby ensuring funding and good will towards his future endeavors.
(www.Nasa.gov/galileo/discovery.html).
A
Short Biography of Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler was born on the 27th of December 1571, in Weil der Stadt,
Germany (Gingerich 389). Throughout his lifetime Kepler bore a strong love
for God, and the power of God to manipulate the universe. In his love for
God he initially sought to become a Lutheran Minister. Regardless of his
initial goal Johannes Kepler was "arguably the first astrophysicist in
an age when astronomer still meant astrologer" (Gingerich 305). However
Kepler came from a relatively poor family and often funded his higher research
by preparing astrological charts and calendars for the wealthy, and for
the royalty he served under. Kepler played a primary role in ridding Copernicus'
heliocentric ideas of the solar system of many vestiges of geocentric theory.(Gingerich)
Kepler was highly educated, his primary disciplines being Astronomy, optics
and mathematics. After completion of his formal education he held positions
as a teacher, and as district mathematician. It was at this time that "he
began to ponder various questions, including why are there six planets?
Why are their orbits positioned how they are? And why do planets farther
from the sun move more slowly? (Crowe 149).
In the year 1600 Kepler went to work with Tycho Brahe in Prague, where
he remained until 1612. In that time Brahe died and Kepler assumed his
position as Imperial Mathematician, "at one sixth his salary" (Crowe 153).
Kepler's Astronomia Nova was published in 1609, his first
and second laws of planetary motions were contained within the volume.
Later in life Kepler assisted in the reform of the calendar, and in the
regulations of weights and measures. All the while he continued with his
passion, and published Harmonices Mundi in 1619, which contained his third
law. This tome explained many different scientific and cultural theories
with which Kepler toyed. He was particularly interested in the relationship
between musical harmonies, string length and scales to that of the aphelion
and perihelion of the planets. Kepler saw this a "divine harmony, or a
geometrical vision into the mind of God.and the hidden workings of the
universe" (Gingerich 401). But many believed that "from anyone else, the
carefully crafted excuses and scales would be considered the edifice of
a madman" (Gingerich 401)
Instead of discussing these fantastical theories I enjoy looking more deeply
into what Kepler has offered us. Through researching his life and work,
I feel it was not only his three Laws that made him important. I feel that
many of Keplers fancies such as the "harmonics law" prove his imaginative
and powerful way of looking at the universe.
Kepler
lived to be 59 years old, his life completely encompassed by that of Galileo
Galilei's. He died in Regensburg, Germany on November 15 1630.(Gingerich,
)
"The main reason why he was unable to realize how rich he was- that is,
to understand the significance of his own Laws- is a technical one: the
inadequacy of the mathematical tools of his time. Without differential
calculus and/or analytical geometry the three Laws show no apparent connection
to each other. The y are disjointed bits of information that do not make
much sense. Why should God will the planets to move in ellipses? Why should
their speed be governed by the area swept over by the radius vector, and
not some more obvious factor? Why should the ratio between distance and
period be mixed up with cubes and squares? Once you know the inverse square
law of gravity and Newton's mathematical equations, all this becomes beautifully
self-evident. But without the roof which holds them together, Kepler's
Laws seem to have no particular raison d'être. Of the first he was
almost ashamed: it was a departure from the circle sacred to the ancients,
sacred even to Galileo and, for different reasons to himself. The ellipse
had nothing to recommend in the eyes of God and of man: Kepler betrayed
his bad conscience when he compared it to a cartload of dung which he had
to bring into the system as a price for ridding it of a vaster amount of
dung. The second law he regarded as a mere calculation device, and constantly
repudiated it in favor of a faulty approximation; the third as a necessary
link in the system of harmonies, and nothing more. But then without the
notion of gravity and the method of the calculus, it could be nothing more."
(Koestler 397-398)
V.
The naming, history, and mythology of Jupiter
and its moons
Historically, the movement of Jupiter was coordinated with political and
military initiatives in ancient China. In the Zhou Dynasty in Seventh Century
BC, Duke Wen was planning his return from exile and seizure of the throne
of the kingdom of Jin. He was advised that Jupiter was about to enter Sri
Chen, located in Taurus and Orion, also the celestial counterpart of the
Jin empire. This was a favorable sign for the Duke's initiative, and was
viewed as approval from the heavens to engage in the battle of Chengpu
with the aggressive kingdom of Chu. The Duke won.
Mythologically, Jupiter was a Roman god, also known as Zeus to the
Greeks. Zeus was famous for his prolific procreation, fathering a legion
of gods and heroes from his sexual adventures. Four of the planet's 16
moons are named after four of Zeus' lovers: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
The naming of Jupiter's moons all relate to Greek mythology and are tied
to Zeus in some way. Amalthea is the third moon of Jupiter. Discovered
by Edward Emerson Barnard, Amalthea was the goat who suckled the infant
Zeus. Ananke is the thirteenth moon of Jupiter, and was discovered by Seth
Barnes Nicholson. Ananke was the nurse who tended Zeus when he was a baby.
Sinope is the sixteenth moon of Jupiter, and was discovered by Seth
Barnes Nicholson. Zeus took Sinope to the city of Sinope on the Black Sea,
and promised to grant her biggest wish. She wished to remain a virgin,
and so she did for the rest of her life. The city of Sinope is on the Turkish
Black Sea coast.
Pasiphae is the fifteenth moon of Jupiter. Discovered by P.J. Melotte,
Pasiphae was the daughter of Zeus, the wife of Minos, and mother, by a
white bull, of the minotaur. Metis is the first moon of Jupiter and was
discovered by Synnott. Metis was an Oceanid, a daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, as well as the first wife of Zeus. Lysithea is the eleventh moon
of Jupiter and was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson. Lysithea was the
mother of the first Dionysus, born to Zeus by Persephone. Leda is the ninth
moon of Jupiter. Discovered by Charles Kowal and named after the Queen
of Sparta who gave birth to Helen of Troy after Zeus visited her as a swan.
Io is the fifth moon of Jupiter and was discovered by Galileo. Io was a
mistress of Zeus, whom he turned into a white heifer. Himalia is the tenth
moon of Jupiter. Discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine, Himalia was
a nymph of Rhodes with whom Zeus had intercourse after his victory over
the Titans. Carme is the fourteenth moon of Jupiter and was discovered
By Seth Barnes Nicholson. Carme was the mother by Zeus of the Cretan martyr
Britomartis. Europa is the sixth moon of Jupiter and was discovered by
Galileo. Europa was a mistress of Zeus.
Elara is the twelfth moon of Jupiter. Discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine,
Elara was a nymph who was the mother of Typheus by Zeus. Callisto is the
eighth moon of Jupiter and was discovered by Galileo. Callisto was a mistress
of Zeus, changed into a she-bear by Artemis for not remaining a virgin
like her other attendants. Thebe is the fourth moon of Jupiter. Discovered
by Synott, Thebe was the daughter of Zeus. Adrastea is the second moon
of Jupiter and was discovered by J. Palisa. Adrastea was a nymph of Crete
whose care Rhea entrusted the infant Zeus. Ganymede is the seventh moon
of Jupiter. Discovered by Galileo, Ganymede was a handsome youth who was
so beautiful he was brought to the heavens to be Zeus's cupbearer.(Data,
Adrian, many pages)
Zeus was not by any means an idle god. His pillaging and plundering are
recorded in the naming of Jupiter's moons for the rest of time, for all
to see.
VI.
Observational data
For the spring of 1988, you can observe Jupiter right from your own backyard
with the naked eye, looking east at about an hour to forty-five minutes
before dawn. Jupiter is low on the horizon, so it helps to have an unobstructed
view. Using a telescope or binoculars, you can see the Galilean satellites
as well, and even determine their movements from morning to morning. This
has been a fantastic viewing period for Jupiter, in April and May Jupiter
has been observed meeting very closely with Venus, Saturn and our moon
as well. Unfortunately, Olympia weather has not permitted any clear viewings
of Jupiter for us.
Daily observations of Jupiter from the Galileo Orbiter
VII. Bibliography
JOURNAL/MAGAZINE ARTICLES
Brown, Michael. "The Response
of Jupiter's Magnetosphere to an Outburst on Io"
SCIENCE, V. 278, 10 Oct. 1997. p.268-270.
Carlson. R., et al. "Near
Infrared Spectroscopy and Spectral Mapping of Jupiter and the Gallilean
Satellites"
SCIENCE, V.274, 18 Oct. 1996. p385- 388.
Chaiken, Andrew. "Searching
For Water on Jupiter's Moons"
Popular Science,V.97, Issue 5, May 1997. p.66.
Ip, W.H. "Europa's Oxygen
Exosphere and Its Magnetic Interaction"
Icarus, V.120,April1996, p.317-325.
Krupp,E.C. "War Stars"
Sky and Telescope, V.94, Issue 1,July 1994. p.80.
Ladbury,Ray. "Galileo's
Probe Sends a Weather Report From Jupiter"
Physics Today, July 1996. p.17-19.
McCord,T.B., et al. "Organics
and Other Molecules on Surfaces of Callisto and Ganymede"
SCIENCE, V.278, 10 Oct.1997, p.271-275.
McGrath, Melisa A. "Io
and the Plasma Torus"
SCIENCE, V.278, 10 Oct. 1997. p.237-238.
McKinnon, Wm. "Sublime
Solar System Ices"
Nature, V.375, 15 June 1995. p.535-536.
Talcott, Richard. "Jupiter's
Magnificent Show"
Astronomy, V.24, Issue 6.June 1996. p.64.
Cornbleet, S. "Elementary
Derivation of the Advance of the Perihelion of a
Planetary Orbit."
American Journal of Physics, V.61, Issue 7, p. 650-651.
Vogt, Erich. "Elementary
Derivation of Kepler's Laws."
American Journal of Physics, V. 64, Issue4, p. 392-396.
BOOKS:
Duffet-Smith, Peter. Practical
Astronomy with Your Calculator.
Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1996.
Gingerich, Owen. The
Eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, and Kepler.
N.Y.: American Institute of Physics. 1993.
Kaufmann, Discovering The Universe,
Course Text
Lewis, John S. Planets
and Their Atmospheres
Orlando: Academic Press, 1984.
Morrison, David, ed.
Satellites of Jupiter.
Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1982.
Suess, Hans E. Chemistry
of the Solar System
N.Y.: Wiley and Sons, 1987.
Galilei, Galileo. Sidereus
Nuncius.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989.
Koestler, Arthur. The
Sleepwalkers.
N.Y.: Grosset & Dunlap, 1963.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
"Jupiter."
LaRousse Astronomy. de la Cotardiere, Philippe, ed.
N.Y. 1987 Facts on File Publications.
"Jupiter."
Nortons 2000: Star Atlas and Refrence Handbook, 18th ed. Ridpath, Ian,
ed.
Harlow, England 1989 Longman Scientific and Technical
"Jupiter."
The Cambridge Photographic Atlas of the Planets. Briggs, Geoffrey &
Taylor Fredric, eds.
N.Y. 1982, Cambridge U.P.
"Jupiter, etc."
The Dictionary of Astronomical Names. Room , Adrian.
N.Y. 1988, Routledge.
ELECTRONIC RESOURCES:
http://bang.lang.gov/solarsys
http://www.gettysburg.edu/project/physics
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/jovian.html
http://www.hawastock.org/solar/eng/jupiter/index.htm
http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/jupiter.html