Natives in the Media

Brave Eagle

Native [mis]Representation and [mis]Treatment

Television is the medium through which most individuals on this planet can be, has been and will be influenced. Like the bards from cultures long gone, television is where children and adults can gather and listen to the stories of the times, and also where they can learn how to live in the world they are born to. A medium of images, TV has a profound impact on the collective cultural conscious and how we perceive reality. “These `pictures in our heads’’ are used to help us comprehend the world around us” (Merskin). We are trained to react to situations, and people in certain ways. When we see a character on screen, and are then confronted with a similar persona in real life we will treat them as if we know who they are and what they will do because we’ve seen them before, on TV. “Television strongly influence[s] public opinion, (journalist Orville Schell comments that “Hollywood is the most powerful force in the world, besides the U.S. military)” (Mihesuah). Though many pretend that the American people ‘know the difference between what is real and what is not’, we are still a slave to the images we see. Therefore  “[television is] the tool by which the mass media accomplish[es] this education [and] the establishment and perpetuation of stereotypes” (Merskin).

Early television, still plotting it’s course through the muddy waters of conservative America, dabbled in many programs to find what fit. One style of television that was accepted widely was dubbed the ‘adult Western.’ In an attempt to make the shows readily accepted and understood, the writers and actors would play upon the stereotypes of the day. Native Americans, among other minorities, were given the blunt end of the stick and only appeared on early Westerns as the savages they were remembered for. “Sadly, the vast majority of Native American characters on American television during the period [of 1940's to 1960's] only appeared because of their place in the history of the United States.” (Mercurie). Older Native American males played the traditional chief, wise but stubbornly resisting ‘real’ civilization while speaking in broken English. The younger Natives were either the faithful companion to their Anglo-Saxon friend, or they were the young, rash and violent Brave, with a glint in his eye and a knife in his hand. “Natives are typically found in a historical context, reliving episodes of conflict between whites and indigenous people” (Merskin). A great dichotomy was formed in the Western between the civilized white settlers and the savage Native. “When Indians attack white settlers, it becomes a massacre. When soldiers attack Indian tribes, it is for the benefit of civilization and the advance of Western culture.” (Woll, 327). Stereotypes such as these had been fueled by some of America’s greats including Mark Twain:
“He is ignoble—base and treacherous, and hateful in every way. Not even imminent death can startle him into a spasm of virtue. The ruling trait of all savages is a greedy and consuming selfishness, and in our Noble Red Man it is found in its amplest development. His heart is a cesspool of falsehood, of treachery, and of low and devilish instincts. With him, gratitude is an unknown emotion; and when one does him a kindness, it is safest to keep the face toward him, lest the reward be an arrow in the back. To accept of a favor from him is to assume a debt which you can never repay to his satisfaction, though you bankrupt yourself trying. To give him a dinner when he is starving, is to precipitate the whole hungry tribe upon your hospitality, for he will go straight and fetch them, men, women, children, and dogs, and these they will huddle patiently around your door, or flatten their noses against your window, day after day, gazing beseechingly upon every mouthful you take, and unconsciously swallowing when you swallow! The scum of the earth! (The Noble Red Man)

These stereotypes not only affect the non-native American’s opinion of the First Nations people, but also affect the identity of the Native: “Most people believe the generalizations. This certainly creates an identity crisis for many of the purposely assimilated young Indian children. These children often and themselves [do] not know who to identify with.  How realistic these portrayals are goes beyond historical accuracies and reach into individual beliefs about the self.” (Merskin). It becomes very painful for Natives, and detrimental to the opinion of natives by non-natives, when “the most common Indian characteristics viewed on the television screen are depicted as simple, lazy, wasteful, and humorless ; they are shown as lacking intelligence and English-speaking skills and as believing in heathenistic nonsense for a religion.” (Merskin).
There were a number of Westerns that played upon these stereotypes, and were often used to show how the Native Americans were unable to fully assimilate into white society. Television shows like Have Gun Will Travel, and Lone Ranger gave strong episodes about the Native American’s inability to live amongst civilization. Shows like these “usually constructed American Indians as individuals between two worlds” (Wilson, 42).  Amongst all this was the message that “seemed to indicate that ‘good’ Native Americans cooperated with the settlers, while ‘bad’ ones did not.” (Mercurie). Out of this sentiment grew the Native sidekick to the Anglo-Saxon hero. Usually not intelligent by any means, and not capable of solid English, but loyal to a fault. The ‘tonto effect.’ “Tonto is perhaps the best known example of the faithful Native American companion in Anglo-American pop culture.” (Mercurie).
Jay Silverheels, born Harry Smith, was a controversial figure in Native eyes. Although he fought hard for better representation of Natives on screen he often took stereotyped roles. “Silverheels explained that he had no choice but to take the roles he was offered if he wanted to work at all and that almost all the work was lousy”  (WFMU).  Silverheels is most famous for his part in the Lone Ranger as Tonto, The Lone Ranger’s faithful companion, who was a mixed bag in the eyes of Native Americans. “It cannot be denied that the character of Tonto drew heavily upon Native American stereotypes prevalent in the Depression Era United States.” (Mercurie). Although he was very intelligent, a great fighter, and was able to make his own decisions apart from the Ranger, he was still subservient. Tonto was a character that implied depth, but had no cultural background and no life outside of being the Ranger’s companion. “While Tonto’s tribe was said to be Potawatomi on the radio show and Apache in books, it was never acknowledged in the TV series–Native culture played no real role in Tonto’s character. In some respects he was a very shallow character, with no culture of his own and no life beyond being The Lone Ranger’s companion.” He wasn’t even intended to be a major role. “Tonto …was originally considered so insignificant that the hero could be literally called the ranger who works alone” (Price). The word ‘tonto’ is a Spanish word for ‘foolish’, even the way he spoke was the traditional stereotype of Natives:
“Like many Native American characters in mid-20th century American pop culture, Tonto spoke few words and when he did it was always in the broken English common to Native American characters in film at the time. An example of this can be found in the second episode of the TV show, The Lone Ranger Fights On, when The Lone Ranger and Tonto first saw the horse who would be named ‘Silver.” Of the horse Tonto says, ‘Him a beauty. Like mountain with snow–silver-white.’” (Mercurie).

Silverheels was harshly criticized by his contemporaries for his role as Tonto. Many Native activists would rally against The Lone Ranger because of its portrayal of Native Americans. Although the critics of Tonto list his many faults “[h]e was intelligent, resourceful, and brave. This was a stark contrast to many of the Native characters current at the time of his creation in 1933, who were either savages intent on killing “palefaces” or drunken buffoons played for comedy” (Mercurie). No matter what Silverheels said, Tonto was “seen by many Native Americans as a degrading character.” (Mercurie). Not surprisingly, “Silverheels resented the abstraction that it was he alone that was responsible for a negative image of Natives in film and television. To the contrary, he looked at himself as somewhat of a role model, having been the first Native to ever serve on the Screen Actors Guild Board of Directors.” (Mercurie). As John Price, in his article titled The Stereotyping of North American Indians in Motion Pictures, says “While many politically active Indians have since criticized Silverheels for playing a role that was clearly subservient to a white man, he in fact developed Tonto into one of the most intelligent and individualistic Indians to be portrayed on serial television.” (Price)  Silverheels spent a lot of his money and time working on improving conditions for Natives on both the big and small screen. In 1962 he founded, and would continue teaching at until 1968, the Indian Actors Workshop in order to prepare Natives for the better roles he believed would soon come. A large reason for the Workshop was Silverheels trying to combat a common practice at the time. — Redface casting.
“In an era when most Native Americans in film were being played by individuals with no Native heritage whatsoever, Tonto was actually played by a Native American–Jay Silverheels was a Mohawk from Ontario who had been working in film since 1937. Tonto was then not only the first Native American character in a lead role on an American television series, but the first Native character to actually be played by a Native American.” (Mercurie). A great majority of Native American roles were not even played by Natives, but by other, more socially acceptable, races. The fifties and sixties were known for the practice of ‘redface’ casting. Redface casting is when an actor of European or Asian descent, with no native blood whatsoever, plays the role of a Native. Not only is this a cultural offense, it also further limited the ability of Native Americans of being seen on the small screen. A television series called Brave Eagle, which only lasted one season from 1955 to 1956, was a very important series in the Western genre.
“Brave Eagle is even more pertinent in the history of Native Americans on American network broadcast television. Not only was the TV series told from the Native American viewpoint, but it was the first American television series in prime time to feature a Native American lead character…Brave Eagle was a very daring show at the time, not simply in portraying the Cheyenne sympathetically, but in featuring them as the heroes of the series, fighting to defend their land against encroachment from settlers.” (Mercurie).

A wonderful contribution to television, except for one major insult. “White Eagle himself was played by an actor with not one drop of Native blood–Keith Larsen was Norwegian in descent” (Mercurie). All the other Native roles in the cast were of Native descent, but the producers did not see fit to cast a Native as the main role. This might because of professional theories about working with Natives. An excerpt from Making the Movies by Ernest A. Dench, on page 92, says:
“It is only with the last two or three years that genuine Redskins have been employed in pictures. Before then these parts were taken by white actors made up for the occasion. But this method was not realistic enough to satisfy the progressive spirit of the producer.
The Red Indians who have been fortunate enough to secure permanent engagements with the several Western film companies are paid salary that keeps them well provided with tobacco and their worshiped “firewater.”
It might be thought that this would civilize them completely, but it has had quite the reverse effect, for the work affords them an opportunity to live their savage days again, and they are not slow to take advantage of it.
They put their heart and soul in the work, especially in battles with the whites, and it is necessary to have armed guards watch over their movements for the least sign of treachery …
Even today a few white players specialize in Indian parts. They are past masters in such roles, for they have made a complete study of Indian life, and by clever makeup they are hard to tell from real Redskins. They take leading parts, for which Indians are seldom adoptable.
To act as an Indian is the easiest thing possible, for the Redskin is practically motionless.”

With beliefs such as this circulating, it isn’t hard to understand why Natives received such harsh treatment from television casting directors. It is difficult to decipher fact from fiction, when there is such rampant racism of the time. It is hard to believe that there was so much hatred towards such a large group of people, but these were not the only harsh words about Natives at the time.
One western, a CBS series called Have Gun Will Travel aired an episode in 1959 showing how Native Americans are unable to integrate.  The episode Scorched Feather follows a traveling gunman, Paladin, who is approached by a well dressed, well educated Frenchman named Robert Geilbleu, played by Latino Mario Alcalde, and given a job. The job is to protect Robert’s father, William Geilbleu from a Shoshone Comanche warchief named Hotanitan. Robert says that he “[has] fought [Hotanitan], he’s stronger than I am.” William Geilbleu was a scout for the natives, known as Billie Blueskies, who fathers a child with one of the Comanche. He later switches sides and leads many battles against the Natives, and ends up leading the charge that kills the mother of his son. He takes the child and does his best at raising him, separate from his culture. He spends all of his money on raising Robert with the best of western education, William wants his son to be able to pass in society as normal. But Robert was raised by his mother for “too long.” William says he is “crammed full of Comanche nonsense.” We find out that Robert is actually Hotanitan, fighting for the honor of his mother. Hotanitan says that “Robert fought hard, harder than ever, but in the end he lost.” Half well educated Frenchman, half Comanche warchief, he “can go anyplace, wild or civilized, why he can go anywhere” as his father says, to which Paladin responds “And belongs nowhere…” Eventually, Paladin is forced to fight Hotanitan for the father’s life. He says it’s because Robert is “two people, and that’s a madness that will never give him peace.”  After a knife fight, as Robert lie dying, he ‘comes back to his senses’ and ends up quoting Cervantes’ work Don Quixote: “For if he lived a mad man, at least he dies a wise man.” He then thanks Paladin for killing him.
The quintessential episode of the feelings towards Natives in the 1950′s into 1960′s, Scorched Feather is the screenwriters way of saying to the public that Indians, and especially half-breeds, were living with “a madness that will never give [them any] peace.” It was believed that “their way of life is something to be overcome, repressed, and destroyed” (Vecsey, 3). Racism against Natives was rampant at this time due to the limited interaction with natives. “Television helped create the popular concept of a real Indian. According to media images, a Native American rode horses, wore head dresses, and stood on hilltops” (Tan). Because they had such limited means to speak out against these accusations, Natives had no chance to defend themselves, as such, public opinion of Natives was very low, which had a profound affect on the policies that were being formed in Congress. “Television… contribute[s] to the ideas that Indians are heathens, savages, ignorant, and lazy… On television everyday are classic Westerns that portray Indians as violent antagonists who were impediments to western civilization” (Mihesuah)     Negative images of Natives like these reflected congress and the policies they were trying to enforce in the 1950′s through the 1960′s, which became known as the termination era. They also painted an image of the Native American in the eyes of the public as a burden to society. During the time that has come to be called the Termination Era, from the 1930′s to the 1960′s, Congress was trying to assimilate the Native American into society at large. Congress had not been viewing Native Americans as a people, or as individuals but as the “Indian Problem: How to understand ‘them’: what to do with ‘them’, how to justify or recompense for past treatment of ‘them,’ and how to conceptualize ‘them’ economically, politically, socially, and culturally” (Wilson, 37). As Christine Bolt says, policy makers wanted Natives to be “persuaded to merge into the dominant Anglo-Saxon protestant ethnicity” (Bolt, 4). Ever seeking greater homogeneity, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was working on a “federal assimilationist move to break up and disperse Native America communities and incorporate individual Indians into the urban workforce, regardless of the estrangement from community and family that resulted from such a diaspora” (Wilson, 40). As proposed to America at large, the media said it was “an inevitable stage in the maturation and development of American Indians in modernity” (Wilson, 42). An editorial in 1953 said that “it is the apparent intention of the administration in Washington to put the American Indian on his own, and stop baby-sitting for the 400,000 members of the various tribes” (Wilson, 42).
This coverage came at a time when the Natives had no real way of speaking out in defense. Tribal newspapers were all in a rage, but very little was released to the general public. The Saturday Evening Post “celebrated the government’s relocation of individual Indians from ‘bleak and dreary’ reservations (‘concentration camps’) to the ‘delights and opportunities’ of urban areas (‘civilization’), because in their new situation ‘they save their money, go to church, and maintain decorum regularly” (Wilson, 47). Racism was rampant, and Natives were often painted as ‘thieves and villains’, as in this Reader’s Digest story:
“The Indians are on the warpath – not for scalps but for money; in the place of tomahawks they are using law books. The white man took their lands without just compensation, they say. Now they intend to get paid for it… Ridiculous, you think? …Until [action is taken to stop this], the Indians and their lawyers will continue to make big wampum from the American taxpayer” (Wilson).

Ironically, as one tribal chief points out in a 1950′s documentary, “if the government had done what they started out to do, today’s Indian’s under the age of sixty would be self-supporting” (Wilson). In some cases, it was the governments push towards assimilation that destroyed tribe’s livelihood. “Between 1954 and 1960 sixty-one tribes…were terminated” (Bolt, 137). One of these were the Menominee of Wisconsin. Though the Menominee had a good thing going, and were had a good financial grounding, the government included them among a list of seven tribes that were terminated in 1955.  In the case of the Menominee “poverty, unemployment, and resentment were the immediate results of termination” (Bolt, 140).
The unrealistic portrayals of Native Americans were used to get a quick laugh, sell a product, or even change the perceptions of their culture in order to change Congress policies. Native Americans haven’t had the ability to voice their own concerns through the medium of television, and have had to sit back and watch as all the hate and ignorance is streamed onto television across America. And the harmful stereotypes of “TV fiction have become accepted as America’s facts…when it comes to ‘Indians’” (Adare, 2). Even today, in the first decade of 2000, there is a great emptiness of First Nations individuals on television. The Natives tried, hard as they could, to spread their views and gain a positive expression of their culture by exploring many conventions of television. They had a few successes, notably a few documentaries, but they were few and far between. For the sake of First Nations individuals television needs to adopt a more realistic and modern view of Native Americans, and return them to the small screen in a way to make them proud and to present a healthy and accurate view to Non-natives, so that the biased and racist stereotypes can be wiped from cultural acceptance. “In hindsight, we can easily say that the native people of North America were oppressed by three major forces. These were the government, religion and [the Media].” (Wilson).