A flexibility training program is a planned, deliberate, and regular program of exercises that can permanently and progressively increase the usable range of motion of a joint or set of joints over time (Aten and Knight 1978). In the arena of athletics, training in general is a multisided process to influence the development of an athlete and ensure the necessary level of preparation. Stretching exercises comprise just one essential component of an athlete's total training program.
 
 

Warming Up

A warm-up consisting of exercises performed immediately before an activity to increase circulation and heart rate is an essential part of a good conditioning program. Warm-up exercises provide an athlete with time to adjust from rest to exercise. These exercises are designed to improve performance and reduce the chance of injury by preparing the athlete mentally as well as physically for his or her sport. Physiologically, a warm-up elevates body temperature and increases blood flow.Stretching is often incorrectly considered synonymous with warm-up because it is commonly done during the warm-up portion of a training program. In addition,

static and passive stretching exercises do virtually nothing to increase core or peripheral temperatures and blood flow; hence, these stretching techniques do not serve as a warm-up. In fact, stretching should always be preceded by a warm-up because the elevated tissue temperature enhances connective tissue and muscular extension, thereby reducing the risk of injury from stretching.

Warm-up routines are typically classified into three categories. A passive warm-up involves raising the body temperature by some external means such as heating pads and hot showers. A general warm-up is probably the most commonly used technique. It employs various movements not directly related to those employed in the activity itself. These include joint rotations and gentle twisting and bending movements. This is usually followed by light calisthenics, brisk walking, jogging, or jumping rope. Here the goal is to increase muscle blood flow and raise core body temperature. A formal or specific warm-up includes movements that either mimic or are employed in the actual activity, performed at a reduced level of intensity.

The intensity and duration of a warm-up must be suited to the athlete's physical capabilities and adjusted to the existing conditions. Generally, an athlete's warm-up should be intense enough to increase body temperature and cause some sweating but not so intense as to cause fatigue. A warm-up should be more intense in cold weather.
 
 

Duration, Frequency, Timing, and Intensity

There is much debate and little consensus about recommendations for duration, frequency, timing, and intensity of flexibility training (Alter 1996). Consider several important factors when designing a flexibility training program. Perhaps most important, the athlete or coach must identify the purpose of the flexibility training session. Specifically, is the purpose of the program development, maintenance, or rehabilitation of flexibility?

Ideally, a training program should be individually tailored to meet the needs of the athlete; however, many athletes train in a group or team flexibility program. This team-centered program is advantageous because it guarantees at least a minimal amount of stretching and fosters camaraderie and team spirit. However, in such cases, it is still essential that each individual athlete be properly instructed to concentrate on specific areas that need additional stretching on the athlete's own time. Let's briefly review what is commonly recommended for most healthy individuals.

Most programs recommend holding each stretch for 6 to 30 seconds. The problem with holding stretches for longer than 30 seconds is that warm-up and stretching programs in combination might last longer than many workouts. Furthermore, one study found that 30 seconds of static stretching of the hamstring muscles was as effective as the longer duration of 1 minute (Bandy and Irion 1994). This text recommends two to three repetitions of each stretch held for 10 seconds or one repetition of each stretch held for 20 to 30 seconds. The reasoning is simple: Lack of flexibility is primarily due to connective tissue whose permanent or plastic deformation is most favored by low-force, long-duration stretching (Sapega et al. 1981). If there is not enough time to optimally stretch during regular workout sessions, athletes must plan to stretch on their own time.

In fact, empirical evidence would probably reveal that the most significant contributing factor to dancer, gymnast, or martial artist improving his or her flexibility takes place when the individual stretches during his or her own time! Furthermore, it is tempting to speculate that as a consequence there is an increase in the passive flexibility reserve. In turn, this increased passive flexibility reserve increases one's potential for active flexibility. Consequently, it may be that passive or static flexibility is developed primarily on one's own, at home,
whereas active or functional flexibility is developed in the dance studio, gym, or dojo where the passive flexibility is transformed into finely coordinated and skilled movement. Serious athletes must develop both their passive flexibility and active flexibility.

As training progresses, increase the number of successive repetitions for each routine. In addition, incorporate dynamic stretching performed in series, with a gradual increase in range of motion. The number of repetitions in series usually ranges from 8 to 12, but well-trained athletes may perform as many as 40 or more repetitions with maximum amplitude (Matveyev 1981). Some experts recommend three to six sets of 10 to 15 repetitions (Costill, Maglischo, and Richardson 1992). Keep in mind that fatigue and the consequent reduction in amplitude is a sign to stop (Harre 1982). If your muscles begin to quiver and vibrate, pain persists, or range of motion decreases, you have stretched too much. As a general rule, nonathletes should stretch at least once a day, three to five days per week, to maintain flexibility. Depending on their sport, dedicated and serious athletes may require two to three stretching sessions per day for six or seven days per week.

When within a workout session should stretching exercises be done? Research refutes that specific placement of stretching exercises within a workout session makes a difference in increasing range of motion (Cornelius, Hagemann, and Jackson 1988). However, Sapega et al. (1981) recommend incorporating stretching immediately after the main part of a workout and cool-down period because tissue temperatures are highest, making stretching both safer and more productive.

Another question then arises: How intense should a stretch be to develop flexibility? Because intensity is based on subjective factors (tension, discomfort, pain), there is no way for coaches or trainers to determine this level for their athletes; the intensity of the stretch must be up to the athlete. In general, stretch to the point of tension but not pain. For athletes who are undergoing rehabilitation and have healing tissues, the point before pain is reached may be sufficient to rupture already weakened tissues. Remember, the best advice is to use common sense: Train, don't strain.

Improving and retaining flexibility depend on numerous variables, including genetic factors, age, and the state of training. Thus, your muscles' responses to regular stretching are a function of these factors and are dependent on which muscle group you stretch. Generally, for healthy individuals, the longer, more frequently, and more intensely you stretch, the faster and more significant your improvement in flexibility will be. If you are healthy, uninjured, and just starting a stretching program, you may feel increased muscle tightness and some muscle soreness the first week. But as your body adapts to regular stretching, you'll begin to see increases in your flexibility. Likewise, once you stop your stretching program, the flexibility gains will be lost over time.
 
 

Cooling Down

Cooling down is defined as performing a group of light exercises immediately after an activity to provide the body with a period of adjustment from exercise to rest. The cool-down period is valuable for athletes who want to maintain or enhance their flexibility. As tissue temperatures rise, stiffness decreases and extensibility increases. Because tissue temperatures will be highest immediately after a workout and during the cool-down phase, stretching is thought to be both safer and more productive.
 
 

Strength Training and Flexibility

Strength training is a vital component for athletes, although misconceptions exist regarding the relationship between strength training and flexibility (Todd 1985). Research demonstrates that weight training does not decrease flexibility and in some instances actually improves it (Wilmore et al. 1978). With proper training that is technically correct, an athlete can improve both overall strength and flexibility.

A common belief is that strength training significantly increases range of motion if: (1) stretching exercises are included in the training program, (2) both the agonist and antagonist muscle groups are trained, (3) the entire muscle or muscle group is worked through its full range of motion, and (4) there is a gradual emphasis on accentuating the negative phase of work. Negative work or eccentric contractions take place when a muscle is stretched [elongated) while it is contracting. This eccentric contraction is associated with the lowering phase of a resistance exercise. Unfortunately, eccentric training is also associated with a greater risk of muscle soreness.
 
 

SPORT STRETCH, SECOND EDITION

Michael J. Alter

Paperback • 232 pages

ISBN 0-88011-823-7

$17.95 ($29.95 Cdn)