Gender Equity in Secondary Mathematics Education

Crystal Hoover

This project considers gender equity in secondary mathematics education. For the past thirty years it has been argued that women do not achieve as highly as men in mathematics, nor do they pursue it at the rate that men do. This project looks first at current understandings of the gender problem in mathematics, its significance, and the historical basis of gender bias in the field of mathematics. The review of the literature which follows looks closely at factors thought to contribute to the gender differences in achievement and participation such as ability differences, confidence and anxiety issues, differential treatment by teachers, and learning environments. A large body of research is available on this subject, including many international perspectives. Research contained within this project is representative of these diverse perspectives. Although conclusions are difficult to draw, this project critically reviews much of the literature available and suggests potential strategies for ensuring gender equity in mathematics.

Are Adolescent Females Underrepresented in Science?

Gretchen Williams

Science is a gatekeeper to higher education and well-paid technology occupations. In order to keep up with a future of increasing technological fervor all children must achieve competency in science. This lack of knowledge of science concerns many policy makers because without science, students would not be able to keep up with a future of increasing technological zeal. It is therefore imperative that all students have access to science classes to increase their science literacy. Historically, society did not deem women intelligent enough to understand science. Females were not allowed access to science and were forced out of a study of science because it did not match their vocation. This literature review explores this trend of females not taking science courses continuing into the present day. Recent statistics from the National Center of Educational Statistics show more adolescent males than females taking physics, geology/earth science, astronomy, and AP/honors physics courses. This project also reviews a range of qualitative and quantitative studies to explore some of the theories why girls do or don’t participate in science. Finally, two strategies to help get girls more interested in science, creating a gender-inclusive curriculum and a gender specific classroom, were investigated.

The Relationship Between Gender Equity and The Developing Gender Identity of the Adolescent

Megan Marks

This critical review of the literature looks at the relationship between gender equity and the developing gender identity of the adolescent. In the historical background chapter we will see how gender equity has been a value our educational institutions have been trying to achieve the last twenty to thirty years. The concept of gender identity and its relationship to the school curriculum, however, is a relatively new area of study and therefore little data was found to critically review. This review does analyze several curriculum models geared toward the secondary social studies classroom and their effectiveness in creating gender equitable attitudes of the students towards themselves and their peers. More specifically it looks at how constructivist, transformative, and multicultural teaching strategies can promote gender equity in the classroom and expand the students perception of what it is to be male or female, in the past and in their own lives.

The literature suggests that fostering the positive self-concept of the adolescent is necessary in combating the declining achievement rates of students (in particular girls) as they enter middle and high school. This review looks at how specific approaches could enhance not only girls, but boys, self-concepts in regards to school and in particular the humanities curriculum. However, there is little empirical research and therefore evidence that link the development of a positive self-concept and the social studies curricular content. There is however ample evidence that shows that the contributing factors to gender bias in the classroom include teacher attitude, curricular materials, and classroom organization. This review makes the connection that by engaging in curricular and instructional choices that disintegrate gender bias and rigid gender role perceptions, adolescents will experience an expanded sense of self and greater vision of what is possible for their individual and collective futures.

The Impact of Single Sex Schooling on Academic Achievement

Mike Lauritzen

This paper is a review of the current literature pertaining to the effect of single-sex schooling on academic achievement. Drawn from the United States, England, Canada, Australia, Nigeria, Thailand, Ireland, and Jamaica the literature review contains studies that both support and oppose the hypothesis that single-sex schools confer some form of academic advantage upon their students. There is no evidence that conclusively determines when or if school type alone has an impact on the academic achievement of students. This issue is made more complex when the studies control for outside factors like prior achievement, selective admissions policies, class size, and private versus public schools. The literature shows no consistent pattern of effect that supports the superiority of either single-sex or coeducational school type as a single variable, with specific regards to academic achievement. The literature also supports other research findings the link socioeconomic status to school achievement, with higher socioeconomic status of students positively correlated with academic achievement in both single-sex and coeducational programs.

Comparison of Traditional and Constructivist Pedagogical Approaches in Teaching Mathematics

Melanie Eacrett

This paper explores the pedagogical approaches of constructivism and traditional-skills based instruction in the learning of mathematics, and what style is best suited for providing the learner the access to a deeper understanding of the mathematical language. The paper focuses on approaches suited for third to eighth grade students. The history of traditional, progressive, and constructivist pedagogy is detailed in Chapter 2, outlining the forces of culture and history that have shaped each pedagogical strategy. Chapter 3 details the current literature on how mathematics is learned, neurological processes, case studies documenting the implementation of traditional and constructivist pedagogy, and examines questions centered around the best approach to teach learning disabled students and students of color. Chapter 4 contains a summary of what approach is recommended by the author, and the limitations to the implementation of the approach.

An Exploration of Math Anxiety and Strategies for Its Prevention

Steve Valley

Math anxiety is a highly debilitating condition often resulting in poor math performance, low self-esteem and confidence, and a reluctance to pursue higher level mathematics courses in individuals of all ages. Individuals with global learning styles and personality type of thinking-feeling as measured with Myers-Brigs Type Inventory (MBTI) may be more prone to developing math anxiety, while research is inconclusive whether gender may play a role in math anxiety. Math anxiety is often closely aligned with test anxiety and often occurs simultaneously in individuals suffering from math anxiety. A significant body of research into the cause of math anxiety points to traditional teaching methods as a root cause of math anxiety in individuals, teachers who rely heavily on traditional teaching practices such as memorization, use of algorithms and lecture formats foster math anxious students. In contrast, teachers who utilize non-traditional methods incorporating journaling, math manipulatives, group work, interdisciplinary study, and less reliance on testing, are incorporating teaching methods that are presently viewed as preventative techniques for math anxiety. The history of mathematics education in this country has continually swung from a traditional approach to math instruction to a non-traditional, student centered approach. Currently The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) advocates a constructivist, non- traditional approach for mathematics educators.

How Does Cooperative Learning Affect the Academic Achievement of Secondary Students in Mathematics?

Angela Scott

This paper examines the effects of cooperative learning on the academic achievement of students in secondary mathematics. An examination of the history of math education and reform reveals current trends in secondary mathematic and how these trends have led to the inclusion of cooperative learning. A critical review of the literature shows that cooperative learning has had positive effects on academic achievement as measured by test scores, course grades, and teacher observation. The effects of cooperative learning on the achievement of three special populations are also discussed. Literature and research that discussed cooperative learning with ethnic minority students and mild learning-disabled students shows that it is an effective strategy to promote student learning. The literature on gifted students and cooperative learning shows a controversy over this issue. The conclusion from the review is that cooperative learning appears to lead to success for the general secondary mathematics classroom. Questions for additional research and concerns regarding the future of cooperative learning are presented.

Integrated Middle School Science Curricula:What are the Effects?

Angela Polowy

Interest in integrated science programs is increasing, and there are many forms of integrated curricula available for educators to implement. The most popular forms in middle school science classrooms are blending science with math and science with technology, which is becoming increasingly important due to the computerized culture we live in. In addition, global concerns call for us to produce students who become future leaders who are able to problem solve and be multidisciplinary in their abilities when doing so. This paper reviews the historical background of science as a separate discipline, the establishment of middle schools, science as an integrated discipline, and the formation of the United States public school system. It also reviews the current professional literature available on the effects of implementation of integrated disciplines in middle school science classrooms. One of the main difficulties of researching this topic are the numerous definitions and types of discipline integration options involved. Depending on several factors, some integrated discipline programs have been shown, at least in some studies, to have positive effects for the students, as well as the teachers. Others have not. It is concluded that there is a lack of empirical studies specific to my topic, but many important questions arise out of this review.

Strategies That Create Effective Inclusion of Learners with Special Needs

Gordon Quinlan

This critical review of professional literature explores the research and challenges of including learners with special needs in the general education classroom, specifically; the intent focuses on identifying strategies that make effective inclusion possible. The introduction sets out important definitions of terms, existing laws and current controversies surrounding inclusion, and the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. In Chapter Two, the question is contextualized by an examination of the history of western European and American responses to the disabled, as well as the recent legislative changes. Chapter three provides a critical review of the research and writings that address the strategies to support effective inclusion. This chapter includes the perspectives of educators that do not look favorably on inclusion of learners with special needs. The research is often ethnographic and provides considerable insight into the experience not only of the student but the educator as well. In the final chapter, connections are made regarding the history and current research reflecting on how the strategies create effective inclusion for learners with special needs and are rooted in our societies history. The fashion of western European social and political structures has affected more the process of education for learners with special needs than the evolution of remediation or the pedagogy of supporting learners with special needs. This process reveals the origins of public policy regarding learners with special needs is deeply embedded in our societies collective perspective of self and others.

Start The Revolution: Providing Effective Gifted Education in Public Schools

Stephen Rennie

This project is a critical review of the literature regarding current programs and strategies for educating gifted children in the public schools of the United States. The purpose is to determine which, if any, are both effective in educating gifted students and appropriate for the public school system. A brief history of gifted education leads to an examination of magnet schools, pull-out and enrichment programs, acceleration and flexible pacing, tracking and ability grouping, and cluster grouping. The review evaluates each gifted education model’s academic achievement impacts to gifted and non-gifted learners, and sociological impacts to the school and classroom communities. The project reveals that acceleration and flexible pacing, and cluster grouping are the most effective gifted education models for public schools because of their positive effect on academic achievement and lack of negative social results. Pull-out and enrichment programs are shown to be moderately effective. The project concludes that tracking and ability grouping, and magnet schools are not appropriate means of gifted education, due in large part to their severe sociological consequences.

Educating Language Minority Students in Mainstream Classrooms of Secondary Schools

Mika Katzer

This critical review of literature examines the effective strategies to educate language minority students in mainstream classrooms of secondary schools. Despite the fact that the number of English language learners (ELLs) enrolled in the U.S. public schools has seen over 100% growth in the last decade, the political debate over the language of instruction for language minority students -- English only or native language -- is preventing our schools from providing a quality education for ELLs. Chapter 1 presents the scope and focus of the research question, the importance of the question to the author and educational community, descriptions of controversies and statement of limits for this project. Chapter 2 describes not only the historical background of language minority students' education, but also the political, social and economic aspects of this issue. Chapter 3 identifies the five most commonly suggested classroom strategies for educating language minority students: (1) collaborative learning; (2) use of native language; (3) culturally responsive pedagogy; (4) parent-community involvement and support; and (5) accommodating learning styles. This chapter also identifies whole language as the underlying educational philosophy of the five strategies, as well as two other external factors for success; (1) teacher training and staff development, and (2) school-wide support. Finally, Chapter 4 provides recommendations and conclusions for the research question, the connection between the findings and the historical background of the question, along with a statement of unanswered questions and areas for future research. Furthermore, three key elements which affect how these findings can be successfully implemented in the public education system in the United States will be presented.

The Impact of Physical Environmental Variables in School Settings

Jeff Corrick

This critical review of the literature investigates physical elements that may impact student learning within the environment of school classrooms. Chapter one presents a rationale for this investigation by touching on the many physical factors within a learning environment and how some of them may affect students. Chapter two traces some early history of occupational hazards, ergonomics and human factors engineering in the workplace. A history of studies on the learning environment follows. The review of research in chapter three focuses on acoustics, lighting and color and the effects that these elements may have on students and their learning. The research suggests that the nature of the acoustics of a room can greatly impact student and teacher communication and student comprehension. Natural “Daylighting” seems to have a definite beneficial effect on student health and learning as may full spectrum fluorescent lighting, though there is some disagreement on the benefits of full spectrum fluorescent lighting. Color may affect students psychologically and there is some suggestion as to beneficial uses of color but more research still needs to be done. The conclusion recommends enhancements to the learning environment by the use of “Soundfield Amplification” technology, alteration of classroom acoustics and daylighting in new school construction. Full spectrum lighting and the use of color show promise but require more research before being recommended for schools.

Classroom Management Strategies For The Teacher Of Young Adolescents

Tammy McMullen

Pre-adolescent students, ages 10-14 years of age, struggle with many developmental and environmental influences that affect their behaviors in school. This critical review of the professional literature identifies teacher behaviors, curriculum design choices, and classroom structures that are effective in engaging young adolescent students, as well as in preventing discipline problems. It also reviews several classroom discipline models that a teacher may choose to adopt or modify for their own personality, to use with this age group. Some educators argue that, given their developmental tasks, this age group needs to be in active, outdoor programs that give them a chance to explore ideas and develop peer relationships, rather than in school classrooms. The Introduction looks at some of these current issues related to creating school environments for pre-adolescent students. Chapter Two provides an examination of the history of schooling for this age group and traces the evolution of ideas about discipline and the philosophy of the junior high and the middle school. Chapters 3 presents the review of the research and literature on effective pedagogical approaches for preadolescent classrooms and various approaches to classroom discipline that create systems of clear expectations and consequences for preadolescents’ classroom behaviors. The concluding chapter identifies some strategies and approaches that teachers might consider with this age group, based on this review of the literature.

Learning Styles and Their Impact on Student Academic Achievement

Britt Sande

The purpose of this paper is to research the questions: What is meant by the terms “Learning Style?” Has learning style theory been shown to be an effective strategy in addressing the diverse learning needs represented in a typical public high school science classroom? Included in this paper are discussions on the sociohistoric influences upon the field of learning style research (specifically those of IQ testing and the Civil Rights Movement), summaries of the major learning style models, and an in depth analysis of experimental research performed on the Dunn & Dunn Learning Styles Model. Also included in this paper is a very brief explanation of the controversies surrounding learning style research as a whole and the arguments for or against specific learning style models.

In this paper, research on learning style intervention involving subjects from varied cultures, ethnicity, and experiences, as can occur in a typical high school science classroom, were critically analyzed. Included at the end of this paper are some suggestions for classroom teaching based on the Dunn & Dunn Learning Style Model research.