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Saturday February 28, 2004
MIT 2004
Teaching Against the Grain: Resisting the Culture of Schooling
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Teacher Self Censorship In Language Arts Curricula
Donna Portmann
Selecting materials to be covered in a particular course is a seemingly simple task. However, a complex interplay exists between the teacher’s cognition and external factors. One key external factor is the possibility of having a selection challenged publicly by a parent or activist group. Having one’s professional judgment questioned publicly would be uncomfortable for most teachers. The research reviewed for this project indicated that the fear of a censorship challenge provides the potential to impact what teachers select to include in various courses, and without strategies to deal effectively with this potential conflict, teachers may take the safe road and select the safe texts. The question posed is one of fairness to the students. If teachers’ avoid particular texts because of the fear of parents’ or community members’ objections, the students may not be exposed to the widest range of styles and ideas. This avoidance is referred to as self censorship and may hinder the types of critical thinking and development in students mandated by the Washington Essential Academic Learning Requirements (EALRs).
Critical Media Literacy Education: An Alternative to Inoculation, A Tool For Constructivist Teaching
Kristopher Endicott
This project investigates the role of critical media literacy education in the lives of secondary students. It includes a variety of rationales for becoming media literate, as well as a rationale for the inclusion of media literacy in secondary education. Furthermore, a key discussion of the contrast between protectionist and constructivist models of media literacy pedagogy is central. Focusing primarily on the mass media (radio, television, film), it traces the history of ideologies, politics, and practices in the field of media literacy education. In addition, this project critically examines the research regarding how media may affect the lives of adolescents, how media literacy effects students’ critical thinking skills, as well as the findings in the field of media literacy education. Finally, through the exploration of the literature conducted in this project, media literacy pedagogy that is constructive, experiential, and holistic is found to be both successful and beneficial for secondary students; and in terms of media education in middle and high school is generally considered a positive alternative to inoculation or censorship. In general, much more media literacy education research is needed, as well as an examination of the relationship between media literacy education and future critical thinking in adolescent students.
Visual Arts Education for Critical Literacy
Cecily Schmidt
This is a critical review of recent arts education literature in search of strategies strategies used specifically in visual arts education at the secondary level to foster a sense of critical literacy that can enable today’s youth to be intelligent consumers and creators in contemporary American society. The review provides a general overview of the current status of and issues in arts education in our public high schools. A brief history of American arts education is included in chapter two. Philosophies and approaches to influential movements in the field, including child-centered arts education, Discipline Based Arts Education (DBAE), mulitcultural arts education, socially reconstructive arts education, and Visual Culture Arts Education (VCAE), are critically examined in terms of their implications for the development of critical literacy for today’s secondary students. For students to become aware of the possibility of social transformation, they must become critical readers of society, meaning they must learn how to analyze the plethora of images and information they receive daily. The models of arts education that are found to be the most effective in approaching this goal are those that endorse critical pedagogical approaches, contemporary multicultural curriculum, and instruction in media literacy. However, very little empirical evidence exists as to the success of these models. The review concludes that today’s visual arts education is inconsistent and largely undervalued in the nation’s public high schools. Finally, it offers findings from several school districts that have successfully implemented strong arts programs as an important part of every student’s education.
Democracy and Collaborative Group Work in the Secondary Literature Classroom
Janith Pewitt
This review of the professional theoretical and research-based literature explores the concept of democratic interactions in the secondary classroom. Specifically, it examines the democratic character of collaborative group work, from pedagogy to outcome. Using literacy as a metaphor for the development of a way of being, Chapter One explains how this review integrates critical, educational, and political theory and research on democracy with that on collaborative group work. Of major importance to this review is the question of identity development within groups.
Chapter Two offers a history of the American public school system, and is the foundation for the position taken in the Chapter Three literature review that our democracy is adversarial and inequitable. Educators working to foster “democratic literacy” must include efforts for social justice and equity. One crucial effort toward social justice seems to be the recognition and acceptance, even the prizing, of our differences. Consensus, viewed not as compromise but as a way to critically organize our differences, is an important component of the democratic classroom. When we fail to critically examine our power relationships and recognize our own plurality, inequity and injustice are quietly ingrained in our social, political, economic, and educational systems.
The skills required for participatory and deliberative democracy have the potential to lead citizens to interact inclusively and with justice. A very brief sketch of a democratic collaborative classroom is offered in Chapter Four. Participation in critical but inclusive interactions will prepare students for effective future social and political participation. Paolo Freire believed that reality is socially constructed and that the dialogue inherent in collaborative group work is an opportunity to recreate one’s self. Hence, in collaborative group discussion students have the opportunity to use their power to create a socially just group identity, which can in turn, lead to socially just democratic processes.
Making Social Studies Relevant in the classroom: Cooperative Learning, Service Learning and Problem-Based Learning
Avi Barnes
As a future social studies teacher, I am interested in finding ways to connect students with the social studies, and in this review of the literature seek answers to the following question: What are effective constructivist methods of teaching high school social studies to diverse groups of learners? Chapter One explores the issues surrounding the research question, as well as its relevance to the educational community. Chapter Two provides an historical overview of the theoretical roots of constructivism in Western society. Next, Chapter Three looks to empirical studies to find effective practical applications of these constructivist theories by identifying and defining three potentially effective teaching strategies: cooperative learning; problem-based learning (PBL); and service-learning. Results show that all three strategies have positive outcomes within a social studies classroom including the following: 1) Cooperative learning is shown to improve student achievement across varied cultural groups and ability levels in addition to increasing on task behavior within classrooms; 2) PBL is found to increase student’s depth of understanding and student engagement with the content matter; 3) Service Learning is shown to improve interaction among diverse groups, political engagement and student self-concept. Finally, Chapter Four reviews some common themes found in the research, leading to recommendations for classrooms and future research. Recommendations include further research specifically with more diverse populations, and across secondary grade content area classes.
High School Graduation for All
Corrie Rosasharn
This critical review of dropout prevention and educational
resiliency literature was designed to answer the question, “What can teachers
do to increase educational persistence in high school students at-risk for
school failure?” School factors that “push” students away from academic success
are one of the many risk factors that contribute to a student’s decision to
drop out of school. School dropouts only became an important social issue
in the last fifty years, since the majority of adolescents graduated from
high school. The challenge now is to address the disproportionate drop out
rates to ensure an equitable educational system. Thus, this paper focuses
on strategies that are beneficial to populations at increased risk for school
failure. The findings revealed three areas where teachers can positively impact
educational persistence: teacher and student attitudes and disposition, instructional
strategies, and student-teacher relationships. The dispositional traits of
positive belief in students’ abilities, humor, and optimism ready students
for academic challenges. Preliminary research posits that the instructional
strategies of interdisciplinary teaching teams and culturally inclusive curriculum
and learning environment support increased persistence in at-risk students.
Though more research is needed on the impact of specific instructional strategies,
the research suggests that professional, competent teachers that help students
master difficult content provide the most instructional support. The characteristics
of relationships between students and teachers have been the most studied
aspect of the teacher’s role in increasing educational persistence. The research
consistently shows that caring, supportive, and attentive teachers benefit
all students, and at-risk students in particular. Teachers and students at-risk
for school failure would benefit from increased research on this topic. However,
teachers should utilize the information currently available to encourage and
support every student toward high school completion.
Creating Classroom Communities: Exploring the Effects of Creating Intentional Elementary Classroom Communities on Students
Gwendolyn Shae
“Creating Community” discussed the current educational thinking around the different ideas about using public schools to meet the social and emotional needs of students. The historical events leading to these current ideas were explored, focusing on two broad ideas, community building and character education. This paper also provided a critical review of professional literature about the effects that creating community in elementary classrooms has on students. It found that students from diverse social and economic backgrounds were positively impacted by being part of intentionally created communities within these public schools. Finally, ideas and obstacles for implementing community-building programs in elementary classrooms are discussed.
Interdisciplinary Education: More Than a Method
Marie Gabriel
The following review of the literature looks at the concepts surrounding interdisciplinary approaches in United States education, from the Dewey inspired progressive era in education to present day constructivism. The review examines educational theories, philosophies, research, and methodology that relate to interdisciplinary approaches. The focal question addresses the effects an interdisciplinary curriculum has on middle and high school students and will look at academic achievement as well as the social and emotional well being of the students. The review will also include the effects that implementing interdisciplinary approaches have had on teachers.
Controversies arise between advocates of interdisciplinary approaches as well as other educational reforms that encourage conceptual learning, and opponents of such reforms. These opponents tend to advocate a “back to basics” approach to teaching and view standardized tests that target content knowledge as an accurate measure of students learning. Divisions also occur among proponents of interdisciplinary approaches along the lines of theory, philosophy, and methodology.
Effective Strategies for Implementing Contextualization in Secondary Science Education Jennifer Echtle
This critical review of the literature explores the question: What are the effects of using historical, philosophical and social contexts in teaching High School and Middle School Science courses. After careful analysis of over one hundred papers, books and other reviews in the professional literature, the author identifies contextualized science instruction as a useful tool in high school and middle school classrooms. Contextualized science is the teaching of subject matter using examples, or the context of history, philosophy or social issues as the background for which scientific concepts are taught. The combination of history, philosophy and social impact seems to have a more permanent effect on memory and provides for a more pleasant science learning experience for students who aren’t typically successful in science classes because the studies bring humanity and complexity into the classroom. Contextualization is best used with pedagogy that is responsive to the learner, by a teacher with much expertise in the type of context being used.
Exploring Environmental Questions in Integrated Middle School Curricula
Joyce Arafeh
Exploring Environmental Questions in Integrated Middle School Curricula – A Literature Review. Written and published in 2004 this document critically reviews the literature to find successful strategies to integrate environmental education (EE) into social studies and humanities middle school classrooms. The history section provides a comprehensive look into the past approaches to environmental education and the current legislation mandating the inclusion of EE in U.S.public schools. The critical review assesses studies, case studies and associated literature to identify effective methods to include environment based education into middle school classrooms. Findings include: environment-based education curriculum oriented towards an ecological-related social issue holds tremendous potential for improving “basic skills” and motivating students. Useful charts include "good classroom strategies for middle school students". The paper identifies a list of 12 features that are important for an effective environment based education program that can be integrated into middle school social studies and humanities classes.
Service-Learning and Language Arts
Shanti Kessler
Service-learning is an instructional method that intentionally provides youth with an opportunity to apply academic curriculum to meet a community need and develop a disposition of caring for others. This project reviews case studies, quantitative research, and qualitative research related to the impacts that service-learning has on adolescent Language Arts skills. The research collected for this review comes from both educators in the field and researchers. Service-learning is a relatively new instructional method and was not defined until 1997. Philosophies and theories from Thomas Jefferson, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Palo Freire have contributed to the emergence of service-learning. The research available measures a wide range of factors and impacts that service-learning can incorporate and affect. The dilemma of finding research on service-learning that strictly addressed the impact on Language Arts skills was modest. The lack of directly related research was resolved by analyzing how Richard J. Stiggins' achievement targets and Jean Piaget's development theory contribute to the development of Language Arts skills. This review shows how Language Arts skills (writing, research, analysis, synthesis, and comprehension) within the achievement targets of knowledge, reasoning, performance skills, products, and disposition are developed during service-learning projects. Additionally, this review applies Jean Piaget’s developmental theory to analyze the development stage of the adolescent. Piaget’s developmental theory rationalizes the age appropriateness of the service-learning instructional method for adolescents and the development of Language Arts skills. There are few quantitative research studies measuring the long-term impacts that service-learning has on students’ academic skill development, social development, and cognitive development. The majority of the research supplied by the studies was conducted for ten weeks to a year. This brings up the question, does service-learning have a prolonged affect on adolescents’ Language Arts skills and development?
Environmental Education to Sustainabilty Education
Amy Loskota
This critical review of the literature identifies effective strategies for teaching environmental education (EE) to elementary students. Over the years EE has grown in complexity and the range of politics expressed within the term alone tends to confuse its true definition. This does not excuse the classroom teacher from making an informed opinion when choosing options to teach EE. Whether by classroom infusion, a visit to a non-formal EE program, or a residential EE camp (outdoor school), each can be used to effectively communicate the basics of earth systems and the basic understanding of sustainability in a relevant, culturally appropriate, and active way.
Research suggests that infusion, traditional and non-traditional EE programs should be used together inter-disciplinary to support the principles of sustainability. This interdisciplinary teaching of EE concepts is essential. Students must be taught by using a variety of tools, most importantly, involving active learning, empowering learners to self-direct their studies, providing culturally accessible activities, and involving an outward expression of the children’s learning.
EE faces some critical problems, first within the political realm, as it has become an issue connected to issues of capitalism, environmentalism, and activism. Realizing that Western civilization has created inherent non-sustainable language and philosophies within our culture is a first step to addressing those underlying problems of industrial society. At the same time the educator is faced with many challenges, whether it be lack of administrative support, lack of funds for fieldwork, or lack of education on teaching EE.
Thus the question of effective elementary EE education is truly to question how educators’ actions are effected by our cultural values and that of what we need to teach to achieve a sustainable human relationship with this planet.
Effects of Animals in the Classroom on Children
Samantha Nadolny
A review of the literature, this paper examines the effects of animals in the classroom on children. Anecdotal evidence, case studies, and empirical studies support the findings on the topics of animals and child development, animals and stress, animals and hands-on learning, animals and humane and environmental education, and animals and the teacher role. This is a relatively new area of research and most articles date from 1980 through the present. The history of human-animal interaction as well as the history of animals in the classroom is discussed. There is no evidence to refute the positive impact on children from animals in the classroom. These positive findings combined with the relative small amount of research that has been done point to a topic that needs more exploration.
“What is the Pedagogical Role of the Doll?: Effective and Sensitive uses Preschool through Adolescence”
Victoria Payseno
“What is the Pedagogical Role of the Doll?: Effective and Sensitive uses Preschool through Adolescence” is a survey of studies and professional perspectives. This paper examines the history of dolls across world culture and their more recent pedagogical applications in the United States. The critical review section provides information on current research on play and dolls, as well as examples of how educators have made use of dolls in their classrooms. This paper explores the potential merit, limitations and considerations involving the use of the doll in service of constructivist, interdisciplinary and multi-cultural curriculum. This discussion of the use of dolls in the elementary and middle school classroom addresses issues of relevance, gender, race, socio-economics, culture and globalism.
The Effects of the Whole Language Approach on the Elementary Students' Literacy
Devin McGee
This critical review of the literature examines whether the whole language approach to teaching reading is more or less beneficial than the phonics or skills-based approach. As with most issues, the “great reading debate”, as it is often referred, is lengthy, in-depth, and controversial. The focus on determining the best way to teach reading has been a prominent topic of studies, conferences, and educational reform for more than twenty years. In this analysis the research is broken into three sub-sections: the effects of the whole language approach vs. the phonics approach on students from low socioeconomic status and students from the general population; and the effects of incorporating phonics into a whole language curriculum (the balanced approach). The results of this review indicate that it is difficult to come to a firm conclusion on the best way to teach reading. This is for a few reasons: 1) There may not be one right way to teach reading and different approaches may be equally effective; 2) Different approaches may prove more beneficial for different types of students; 3) Until empirical research documents the unequivocal superiority of one approach over all others there will continue to be an ongoing political and educational debate over the matter. While the balanced approach seems to be a promising direction for literacy instruction, further research will need to be conducted to prove the indisputable validity, reliability, and generalizability of this approach.
Engaging and Effective Reading Strategies to Engage Elementary School Students' Interest and Motivation to Read
Lupe Jackson
The topic of “reading” in the world of education involves not only classroom teachers and students, but is the focus of many educators, researchers, psycholinguists, psychologists and sociologists. It is a hot topic in the fields of corporate economics and political debates impacting education in the United States. National education and research organizations, professional educators, and scientists are a few examples of what has turned controversial and passionate research involving reading, language acquisition, comprehension, and literacy instruction into a high stakes issue. No matter the subject matter to be taught, to whom and at what age or grade level nor the geographic location—students’ reading strategies and comprehension level will need to be assessed by the classroom teacher in order to support students’ complex meaning-making. The reading research studies I present for critical review and analysis support the challenge to the classroom teachers who are the role models, and guides, for those students identified as beginning, struggling, or reluctant readers. In addition, this paper explores research designs and their applicability for reading instruction and how the research details relate to engaging students’ interest with effective reading strategies.
Effective Strategies for Teaching in a Multi-ethnic Classroom
Thad Williams
This is a review of the literature based in the field of multicultural education and specifically focuses on possible strategies for effectively teaching in multiethnic classrooms. Research used to support the project consists of published literature as well as qualitative studies of monocultural and multiethnic classrooms. The review examines the current challenges of equitably serving students of color and summarizes the historical development of multicultural education. Current theories and research in multicultural education, specifically works by James A. Banks and Geneva Gay, are reviewed along with qualitative studies. As I conducted my project research, I found a lack of studies that specifically addressed effective teaching strategies in multiethnic classrooms. In conclusion, I suggest general pedagogical strategies from the multicultural education field that could be beneficial in multiethnic classrooms.
Culturally Responsive Environmental Education
Dustin Haug
This paper explores the potential for mainstream environmental education programs to become more responsive to the growing cultural diversity of students they serve. The research and theories presented in this paper challenge commonly held stereotypes related to diverse perspectives and traditionally marginalized students. The environmental justice movement plays a special role in bringing together goals of environmental education and challenges of student diversity. Rather than a denouncement of the field, this paper is a call for mainstream environmental education to reflect on past commitments in order to better re-orient themselves for teaching future audiences. This paper identifies some strategies for accomplishing this task, provides suggestions for future research, and includes some supplemental information related to this important topic.
The Role of Drama in Language Arts Classrooms
Kristin Eckert
This critical review of the professional literature explores the question: “What are the effects of integrating drama in secondary language arts classes?” Key subjects addressed in this review include the impact of drama on the learning of diverse students in secondary grades and an evaluation of empirical research of drama’s effect on oral communication, reading comprehension and student disposition. Chapter two of this review recounts the historical development of educational drama (sometimes referred to as Creative Dramatics) in the United States and its relationship with efforts to increase empathy and promote democracy in the classroom. In chapter three the empirical evidence is evaluated for its ability to undisputedly demonstrate that drama achieves the positive results that have been attributed to it for the past eighty years.
The reviewer concludes that the available research does not provide consistent or substantive evidence that the integration of drama in language arts classrooms can be credited for the effects found in the research. While drama may have academic and social values the available research often combines the integration of drama with student choice and other possible variables that dilute the findings. Drama’s impact on student disposition does appear to have some more substantive holding but there isn’t enough data to soundly uphold the hypothesis. The conclusion of this review is consistent with recent meta-analysis of the experimental research - the integration of drama may have an impact on democratic and academic learning but the research is yet to be done that can substantiate the claim. Suggestions for future research are included at the end of the review.
The Effects of Visual Art Education on Academic Achievement in the Core Subject Areas of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics
Kathy Lobdell
The purpose of this project is to review the literature addressing the question, “what are the effects of art education on student achievement in the core required classes of reading, writing, and mathematics. It is the author’s intent to review such findings in an attempt to justify the importance of art education in America’s public schools. With the pressures posed upon the field of education due to reform issues and goals set by state and national standards, it is imperative as a future visual art instructor to evaluate factors that are believed to contribute to student success. As will be outlined in Chapter Two of the historical section, it has not always been clear as to the importance of art in education. What continues throughout the remainder of this project is a review of the studies and literature that have directly explored and challenged the assumption that art is nothing more then “drawing a pretty picture”. In particular three areas of interest were examined and evaluated. They pertain to the issues of transfer, experience and aesthetics as a means to identify the effects of art education on academic achievement.
1) Do skills transfer from art to other areas of learning?
2) Does the experience of art enhance learning?
3) Or, should art be valued for the qualities it offers as an aesthetic discipline?
A Kinesthetic Approach: Learning Through the Language of Movement and Dance
Megan Henningsen
This project considers the integration of movement and dance into the classroom curriculum as well as the larger educational system. The effects that movement can have on the students’ learning process are considered in a comprehensive discussion examining the current literature on this topic. A historical review of literature documents the origins and development of movement and dance in education. The historical background acquaints the reader with the introduction of movement and dance into the American education system, the ways in which movement and dance evolved in education, and the many leaders who were at the forefront of its progression. A review of contemporary literature reviews studies related to the impact that movement can have on the learning process. This section is divided into seven distinct perspectives concerning the integration of movement and learning. These subcategories include: the use of movement to support and enhance kinesthetic intelligence, the use of movement to support students’ kinesthetic learning style, the use of creative movement to develop conceptual understanding, brain research that supports the use of movement in the learning process, dance education, specific forms of movement being used in the schools, and the effects of movement on literacy. The final section of the paper involves conclusions formed after a careful review of the historical and contemporary literature concerning the integration of movement and dance into the educational curriculum