Beginnings: A Short History of the Community College

Kevin Tissot

Richard Garlish 1

Beginnings. The community college that we know today saw it's beginnings at the turn of the century in the identity of the junior college. Throughout the growth of America in the 20th century the community college has served as an educational force to serve the emerging populace. But before there was a definition of a community college, we had to have a split from the university and the high school, this is where the junior college found it's roots. At the turn of the century the junior college was a new device to steer people into the proper education for the new America. There were many forces at the time that had a say in what a proper education needed to be. It is in these forces that the opportunities of the junior college saw light. This is where the story begins, with the role of the Federal government in the formation of the junior college, but first the land grant colleges set the stage.

The Federal government initially had stayed out of the funding loop for education. Public schools that were established before the American revolution had an established agenda that usually was surrounded by religious dogma. Schools were mostly private institutions and the curriculum was tightly controlled. It was only with the formation of universities after the revolution that the government could think of getting involved in the funding, and only then through some interesting devices.

By the middle of the 1850's there was talk of funding land grant colleges; each state would receive 20,000 acres per senator and member of congress, the

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proceeds from the sale of these lands would be dedicated to supporting agricultural and mechanical colleges (p.7 Stickney/Marcus). Initially this idea failed. In 1857 Senator Justin S. Morrill passed the first version of the Morrill Act which proposed the idea of the land grant colleges, it was vetoed by President James Buchanan. President Buchanan believed that the idea was unconstitutional: "Congress does not possess the power to appropriate money in the treasury…for the purpose of educating the people of the respective states" (p.7 Stickney/Marcus). The climate at this time was difficult for states rights, twenty new states were formed in the years between 1820 and 1860 (p.39 Williams). Buchanan was sensitive to the role of the Federal Government. Enter Abraham Lincoln.

Five years later with the North having won the war and President Lincoln firmly in office the Morrill Act passed, the year: 1862. The Federal government had entered the public funding game, the look of higher education would never be the same. The Morrill Act ushered in the idea of the Federal Government being more apt to be involved with higher education than with public schools (p.19 Burke). In higher education the government could have a say over the finished product of education. The Morrill act was revolutionary, it allowed the government to attach conditions to the sale of public lands and started the government thinking about the type of education that it wanted to support for the people who needed opportunities. These were the people in the industrial

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classes, when Lincoln signed the Morrill Act "that economic stratum included four of every five Americans-whether farmers, artisans, mechanics, or laborers. The vocation in which the majority of Americans were identified-was agriculture" (p.2 Williams). However, Morrill who sponsored the legislation did not like the term agriculture, he believed that the term "would never have been applied to the institution except that it happened to suit the casual convenience of an index clerk" (p.2 Williams). An interesting dialogue from the founder of the legislation.

There was other legislation that followed that secured the steps of the Federal Government into the funding arena. (It is important to note that the propping up of the higher education circles allowed for these same circles to give their talents to the formation of the junior college). In 1887 the Hatch Act was passed. George Washington Atherton, the seventh president (1882-1906) of the Pennsylvania State College was a motivating force behind the Hatch Act and the second Morrill Act in 1890. Atherton stated that "The nation as a nation must educate" (p.12 Williams). He believed this for the state governments as well as the Federal government. The Hatch Act provided for the formation of agricultural experimental stations - through the Hatch Act the colleges could find new ways to adapt their curriculum to serve the communities needs. The Morrill II provided something that the Hatch Act did not: annual funding for general programs. The stage was being set for the idea of the college being a way for the

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government to circumvent laws concerning federal involvement with education. The government was paying the bills, but the schools were setting the course. The government funded the schools who followed the prescribed curriculums. This was the foray into funding that the government had avoided up until the Morrill Act.

Many things were happening at this time with the establishment of universities in America. The German models of education, much heralded at the time were the inspiration for the intellectuals to start the reform of the universities. In Germany the Gymnasia was the breeding ground for the entrance to the hallowed universities. Students who completed the studies at the Gymnasia were allowed to continue on to the University at no cost. The curriculum of this pre-university consisted of Latin and Greek languages, integral calculus, general history, and a second modern language besides German; no one below the second grade was allowed to enter the University (p.24 Diener). The social impact of the Gymnasia described was: "Thorough in all its parts, consistent with itself, and vigorously sustained, it furnishes every department of life with educated men, and keeps up at the Universities themselves, in every branch of knowledge, a supply of erudite and elegant scholars and authors, for the benefit and glory of their country, and the good of mankind (p.24 Diener). Lofty goals indeed. The universities in America could use some of this energy of erudition.

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For many reasons the top American educators thought that the American system was not up to the German standard. The students in the U. S. were not coming out of high school equipped to study at the universities and there was a shortage of students in the junior and senior classes. The universities were being watered down, one of the foremost people to talk about how to change this was Henry Philip Tappan, named president of the University of Michigan in 1852. Tappan drew huge distinctions between college and university work. He did not believe that there was a single University in America only colleges. The college he believed is quite different in its organization: "A college in distinction from a University is an elementary and a preparatory school…and thus the colleges would become places of separate study" (p. 26 Diener). The split was being discussed, how could Stanford become Heidelberg without the concept of the Gymnasia to weed them out? This was the beginning of the junior college idea: a preparatory school for the university, but there were many more factors that the junior college had to address as a institute unto itself, including its role as a vocational institute. A brief history of the formation of the junior college follows.

The first manifestation of this split came in 1859, a plan at the University of Georgia by William Mitchell a lawyer and a member of the board of trustees. He proposed "the abolishing of the Freshman and Sophomore classes, and having them instructed in the Institute herein contemplated, and there to remain and be watched over night and day, till fully prepared for the junior class" (p.30 Diener).

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The students were not ready, neither was the University of Georgia. The civil war came and the idea was not discussed again. The person who is credited with the first use of the name junior college is William Rainey Harper of the University of Chicago. He called the lower division of the University of Chicago a junior college (p.5 Deegan/Tillery). Harper along with other educators encouraged the high schools to offer a broader scope of classes to meet post-secondary needs. Harper also envisioned the role of the junior college in not only feeding universities but providing post-secondary opportunities: "Harper anticipated the large number of students who would neither seek nor be encouraged to pursue the B. A. degree: "students not really fitted by nature could stop naturally and honorably at the end of the sophomore year"" (p.5 Deegan/Tillery). The junior college had begun.

The first real operating junior college was established in Joliet, Illinois in 1901 (p.6 Deegan/Tillery). In 1903 the Lewis Institute clarified some of the issues concerning the identity of the junior college in that years annual. Allan C. Lewis, founder, was being editorialized: "Clearly Lewis was not satisfied with the classical program of studies: it alone was not sufficient for the demands of a newly emerging industrial society. At the same time he felt technical or vocational training alone was too narrow" ( p. 43 synopsis by Diener). The junior college would have to provide both roles of university transfer and vocational training.

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The history of vocational education dates back to 1874 and the Navy: specific schooling for a specific national need. "To promote this goal, the Navy was authorized to provide fully equipped training ships to six specified nautical schools. By 1911, the effort had been extended to ten such schools, each of which received an allotment of no more than $25,000" (p.19 Stickney/Marcus). This idea takes us back to the land grant colleges. The Federal government was funding so called technical colleges to meet specific societal needs. This idea played into the formations of the junior colleges. People who were not fit for the university needed training beyond what the high schools had to offer. The general population needed new skills that would help them to compete in the workforce. This is where one of the most important aspects of junior colleges comes into play. Junior college curriculums reflected the needs of the communities that they were built in. Specific programs were designed to allow the graduate to contribute to the economy of their region. States had an investment in the graduates to stay and contribute to the workforce. The Morrill Act spoke to this idea of a local education, the major reasons for the inclusion of vocational curriculums was the changing needs of a new industrial America and the propagation of the American dream. These two ideas walked hand in hand down the road of opportunity.

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America was changing and so was its workforce. There was a new era of mechanized work brought on by the industrial revolution. Junior colleges became a place to train for the revolution of industry that was taking place in America at the turn of the 19th century. The stage set by the Morrill Act was important in this new idea of education: "because it reinforced the principles of low-cost college education for common people, federal support of higher education, and a college education that would provide for the practical vocations and the applied sciences of engineering and technology in agriculture and industry" (p.1 Patterson). The Morrill Act was talking about the practical occupations that the people would need for a prosperous future. It was in this new future that the junior college could provide the education to meet the needs of industry. American business was growing up, through industrialization the mechanized world was dawning: "Machines were displacing workers in large numbers. These changing job requirements demanding more highly skilled workers gave impetus to the work of the junior college" (p.11 Diener). The same information put another way touches on a different aspect: "First was the rapid industrialization of the United States and the mechanization of its agriculture, both leading to increasing demand for trained men and women. A second influence was the democratization of public school education, which led to increasing completion rates from high schools" (p.3 Deegan/Tillery). This idea of high schools was very important. The high schools were churning out a large

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number of graduates (more on that later) that had some vocational training, but the training was not nearly enough. The new needs of the U.S. economy led to the establishment of technical and business programs in the junior colleges (p.11 Diener). The economy was pushing the curriculum and it had been since the Morrill Act I and II. The junior college filled the role between the high school and the university, speaking to youth that needed more training for the new economy, but did not want the rigors of a university education. In the arena of the junior college there was choice, and there was a new generation of high school graduates that had to choose.

More people to educate, more institutions to educate them in. This new population boom made the need for a different type of degree outside the circles of intelligentsia very important. America needed its new workforce educated and put to work. The high schools were producing a record number of graduates: "growth was rapid: enrollment spurted from 72,000 in 1870 to 519,000 in 1900, with the numbers of graduates increasing from 16,000 to 95,000 in that same period. It was now a question of when - not if - community colleges would be added to the system" (p.2 Zoglin) (This was a liberal use of the name community college by Zoglin, at this time the institution was known as a junior college). The American dream was opportunity, and an education would be the ticket to the skills needed at the turn of the century: "Throughout the 20th century in the United States and other countries, students from lower income families

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have been channeled into vocational and technical curricula, while students from upper income families have been channeled into college preparatory curricula" (p.30 Spring.) The larger numbers of graduates reflected the growing need for education and opportunity for the common man. As Spring writes, education was not always the right of the common man. It was the junior colleges that picked up the slack of vocation training that the high school and university did not provide. In this way the junior college was born from a niche that filled economic and social needs.

One piece of the puzzle is being left out and it starts with the high school. I discussed that Joliet Junior College was the first operating junior college, but it was more than that, it was first an extension of Joliet High School, in 1901 a two year addendum was added to the high school program (p.48 Thornton). The junior college had its roots in the idea of the six year high school. William Rainey Harper was again very influential in the establishment of these six year high schools: "He supported and encouraged efforts by high schools throughout the Midwest to take on the task of completing the secondary education of youth-preparing them for entrance at an advanced stage to the university" (p.47 Diener). A six year high school in Goshen, Indiana talks of its preparation for the year 1905: "In selecting the instructors we apply directly to the colleges for the material required…In room and equipment we have provided the most modern and thoroughly furnished high school we know how to build…The ways and

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means for meeting the extra expense incurred in the addition of two years' work to the curriculum, we obtain, partly, by charging an individual tuition fee of $30…The high school is now offering the first year of advanced work, and although the announcements were late, five boys and two girls of the class of 1904 have availed themselves of the opportunity (pp.62-63 Diener). This is a precious example of how a high school would try to fill this new role. In California, Alexis Lange, Dean of the School of Education at the University of California and David Starr Jordan of Leland Stanford Junior University sought state legislation to allow California high schools to teach grades thirteen and fourteen (p.2 Patterson). The high schools costs were too high and resources too scarce to viably compete with the newer junior college. But the junior college definitely found its roots in the idea of a thirteenth and fourteenth grade.

One of the resources that was born from all this opportunity at the junior college was the notion of guidance counseling. Students were expected either to transfer or go into the workforce so the junior college became the perfect place to ask the questions of the future of a student: " If students were enrolled in these institutions but expected to actually complete their work elsewhere, the college had the responsibilities to help those students succeed at the junior college" (p.8 Diener). This played into the idea of tracking for a role in society. What are the interests of the student? And how can they make the most of the opportunity of an education? A Platonic viewpoint would ask what should the individual do for

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society? This notion of guidance counseling is one of the most important roles of the modern community college. In a series called New Directions for Community Colleges, a 1980 edition titled Questioning the Community College Role talks about the notion of "cooling out" the student: "Cooling out often results in class-based tracking of students into terminal vocational programs that limit graduates to the world of the semiprofessional and the technician. Thus, colleges serve as a "safety valve" to contain social and political pressure that otherwise might explode" (p.3 Vaughan). This idea of guidance counseling allowed the junior college to become a place that the community could have its needs met. In this way business has always had a hand in the curriculum of the local junior college (I will delve into this more in my letter to the superintendent).

Many resources refer to the parents of the junior college: the public school system as the mother and the state university as the father: "Its mother was part of the democratic force attempting to open higher education to the masses; its father, part of the elitist force wanting to secure prepared scholars for specialized study and research similar to the German model" (p.i Patterson). The high schools were opening education to the masses but not preparing the students for the future ahead. The graduates were not up to the challenge of the university and from the numbers of their graduates the high schools were severely taxed already. This is proven by The University Committee who argued against Harper's endorsement of the seven year high school plan: "The high schools

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were unable to do the work because of the inadequacy of their equipment, the incompetency of their instructors, and the fact that they were already too crowded with their four years of work" (p.49 Thornton). The high school needed some help.

The junior colleges could take the burden off of the father: the universities. This is an important fact that needs emphasis: one of the main ideas behind the formation of the junior colleges was the preparation of students for the entrance to the University: "It is this fact, among others, that inspires the heartfelt wish on the part of the American universities to be relieved of these two years of essentially secondary schooling" (p.69 Diener). But to prepare the students for the university, the junior college had to reflect the curriculum of the transfer agreements: " At the time, universities had powerful controls in their acceptance of transfer credit; in some cases they actually served as accrediting bodies" (p.7 Deegan/Tillery). It would be years before the junior college could leave the shadow of its mother and father institutions to become the Community College.

But leave it did to become one of the foremost institutions of education since the formation of the American University. The community college has served one generation after another in teaching the skills to serve a nation. Opportunity has been at the table of higher education for hundreds of years, never has an institution served so many needs as the community college. Transfer degrees, vocational training, remedial schooling, English as a second language, the arts,

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community outreach, an open door policy - this is the modern community college. Its a bigger high school and a smaller university, a world unto itself to the many students who graduate every year, every quarter. The two year college was borne of necessity, now the necessity is keeping these institutions alive with all their community intact. From the Morrill Act to 1996, the junior college spirit is alive and kicking, serving the public who needs it the most: the common American.

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Community colleges are a unique facet of the American educational system. Their role as an allocator of knowledge is a hybrid of both secondary and post secondary schools. Like a child born of two parents, the community college has traits which resemble its predecessors; but is an entity in and of its own. Community colleges share in the responsibility of educating the people of our nation with four year institutions and secondary schools. The community college's hybrid nature makes for interesting financial management.

Community colleges have evolved and taken on new roles and responsibilities throughout their history. Government has recognized and redefined them in order to create a more efficient and productive educational system. With increased responsibility comes increased needs, needs the government has responded to over the course of time. Education has been a strong and passionate pursuit of the American people for the better part of this nation's history. Americans have come to identify education with upward mobility and advancement. This is the sole reason why community, junior, and vocational colleges were and are currently funded.

The ways and means of finance for the two year college reflects an American obsession. A national obsession to pursue

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an educational system which would endow everyone with a marketable job skill at any cost. Americans have come to

identify education as an inalienable right. The people of this nation are quick to make demands on our government for increased services, and at the same time cringe when the price goes up.

The history of finance for the community college is an interesting historical demonstration of the interplay between public demand and financial limitation.

The system by which the two year college acquires assets is the most unique in American education. The modern community college borrows a page from every book in the business of educational finance. The diverse system of funding resources for community colleges is the result of an evolving role in the American educational system. The modern community college has historically been structured as a 13th and 14th grade, vocational arts institution, or junior college. In each stage of development, the modern community college has had a unique system; a system that is a direct product of the evolutionary growth of a two year educational institution.

During the late 1800's and early 1900's the interest in post secondary education began to gain momentum. The American university system at the time was not able or inclined to offer

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mass enrollment to their institutions. In fact, the time period between 1890 and 1910 saw the universities get more exclusive as the population demanded more of their services. Government and the university system had an interest in finding ways to provide efficient and affordable post secondary education to the masses.

Both government and the universities took steps to meet the increased educational demand on their own terms. Although working for a common goal of continued learning, the university and government worked toward this goal independently of each other. The California Legislature for instance passed laws in 1907 to extend the authority of high schools. "To offer courses equal to the first two years of university study"(Breneman/Nelson p.6).

Universities sought separate solutions during the same period. William Rainey Harper of the University of Chicago was the father of the junior college. "Harper created a lower division in 1896 he labeled the junior college the first recorded use of that term" (Breneman/Nelson p.6).

In reality the programs the universities offered were not that different from those offered by the extended high schools. Both the junior college and the extended high school offered curriculums that were in line with the first two years of university study.

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What was different about the two year college programs was how they were funded. Two year institutions were funded as either public high schools or universities. Extended high schools were funded from the local public education coffers, junior colleges were subsidized as an annexed part of a primary university.

As the interest in two year institutions grew, the programs the two year college offered also grew and expanded. Eventually, the experiments in extended high school and junior college grew into what is the modern community college.

The community college is an American educational institution with a funding system with roots in both high and lower education.

The lower school finance system was the first backbone of the 2 year college's funding support. The same legislation authority designed for the primary and secondary school also turned the 2 year colleges' engine. "Since 1907 when the first junior colleges had been organized as extension of secondary schools deriving their support from their budgets,.....their support continued to come predominantly from local tax funds" (Cohen/Brawer p.128).

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Public education and local tax systems initially had little difficulty in supporting the extended high school or junior college. Often little, if any, tuition was charged. Part of the ease of public finance was a tame demand for a two year institution; only twenty in 1909 (Cohen/Brawer p. 9).

Due to the small demand on the two year institution the policy of small tuition was initially easy to keep. The financial burden to operate post secondary non-traditional education was small. This allowed the state and localities to finance these two year programs as a part of their normal budget.

"The usual pattern was the local districts to provide a fix sum of money per student in attendance, with state aid minimizing the differences among districts of varying wealth. The student's share cost was quite small: ...in 1934 local districts provided 84% of colleges support, with student fees accounting for 5% and the state subsidized the rest" (Cohen/Brawer p. 128).

The modern community college as an attachment to the university, such as the University of Chicago's junior college was limited to the constraints that were imposed on the universities themselves. No additional or separate monies were provided specifically for the two year college. Starting in the late 1800's legislation was passed to expand colleges in this

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nation. As a result, the two year college benefited in all its forms.

There was a bevy of federal legislation which gave precedent for the modern community college which found its identity in the fifties and sixties. A short historical summary of the federal legislation demonstrates how increasingly important the two year college has become in American education.

In 1862 the Morrill Act was passed. This act provided land to be used for the development of public colleges. This was the first specific action to set aside lands and monies to ensure higher public education in the states. Later the act was amended in 1890 to extend its responsibilities and make them accountable

to the office of education (Johns/Morphet p.370). These acts were designed to address inadequacies in higher education. These acts also insured a public institution for higher education in every state. They were symbolic of the federal commitment to education and as such, put in place a groundwork for important funding legislation.

In 1917 the Smith-Hughes Act provided funds for vocational colleges below the traditional college level. The Smith-Hughes Act was the first special purpose grant made available to public schools by the federal government (Johns/Morphet p. 370). This piece of legislation stimulated and encouraged vocational

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education. Furthermore, it enhanced the increase in higher education which was starting to take root in America.

The decade of the 1920's was the boom before the bust. The stock market crash forced President Roosevelt to get creative. As a by product of his vain attempts to keep the nation afloat, the cause of post secondary non-traditional college education was advanced.

In the 1930's and early 1940's vocational schools and junior colleges were subsidized through the Federal Emergency Act and separate acts of Roosevelt's "New Deal". In 1933 when Franklin Roosevelt took office, 25 percent of the labor force was unemployed and destitute(Johns/Morphet p. 374). In the process

of "keeping busy" the new deal benefited both secondary and post secondary education by either providing money or retraining the work force. "Specifically, the Civilian Conservation Corps, The National Youth Administration, The Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Public Works Administration, and the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation either directly or indirectly contributed to public education as a whole"(Johns/Morphet p.374). The Federal government increased its interest and commitment to non-traditional post secondary education the 1940's. Veterans were returning from the theaters of war unskilled and

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unemployable. To be frank, the government had very little choice but to increase educational opportunities.

The Veteran's Training Program , The Laharm Act, National Science Act, the GI Bill and other post war veterans benefit legislation poured money into the post secondary educational system. Two year colleges were able to train and re-skill veterans for the work force relatively cheap and efficiently. Many veterans earned degrees or job certification through this legislative package. For example the GI Bill of 1945 poured 2.8 billion dollars into education; money that provided one million vets with an education (Garms p.8).

The increased interest in education was sustained over the course of the next fifteen years. In an attempt to shore up the

American educational system, the Congress of the United States passed the Defense of Education Act in 1958. This piece of legislation was a major commitment to education; "The purpose of this bill is to assist and to encourage able student's to continue their education beyond high school"(USCAR vol.2 1958

p. 4731). The Defense of Education Act specifically provided 840 million dollars for the use of expanding post secondary education (USCAR Vol. 2 1958 p. 1056). This legislation was designed to help restructure the American educational system for the future of the nation. The children of the war era were in

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high school soon to be adults and in need of employment in a post war economy. The baby boomers were fast becoming of age and the American work force was in danger of having a flood of unskilled able bodied labor.

Traditional colleges and universities were faced with being inundated with students. Educators and government felt the two year colleges could provide a vehicle to train workers with skills which would benefit the student and lighten the load of the colleges.

In his congressional message of February 1961 President John F. Kennedy made his case for an increased role for the two year college. In his address, President Kennedy made it clear that vocational education must adjust to the future demands of

American industry, calling for a commission responsible for: "Reviewing and evaluating the current National Vocation acts and making recommendations for improving and redirecting the program" (USCAR vol.2 p.1056).

The findings of the commission in conjunction with the civil rights movement resulted in financially empowering legislation. The Vocational Education Act of 1963, Higher Education Act of 1963, Equal Opportunity Act, Economic Opportunity Act and the Elementary and Secondary School Act of 1965 defined the modern community college. These acts cemented the two year institution.

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Furthermore, it defined it as an essential part of the American educational system.

Under the flag of the legislation of the 1960's the community college proliferated on the American educational landscape. From 1960 to the early 1970's an average of one community college a week opened in America.(Breneman/Nelson p.1)

An influx which created a 47% increase in junior and community college enrollment in institutions which were 87% public (Aajc Letter No.234 March 24, 1987). The quick nature of their establishment moved the colleges toward the opportunity of adapting and making functional the Civil Rights Act of the sixties. They were able to quickly institute and pioneer the

"open door policy" which was the policy of free and equitable education for all.

The modern community college was indeed coming of age and so was it's price. The explosive expansion of the two year college effected an inflated demand for resources. During the first part of the 20th century, the two year college made few financial demands of the government or on the communities in which they served. Due to the inflated demand for finance support the inconsistencies of the two year colleges financial structure began to show.

The issue of tuition became a problem in the sixties for the

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community college. Traditional stations of higher education make a substantial contribution to their own finance through tuition and fees. From 1959 to 1969, tuition made up an average of 30% of the total net income for universities (Carnagie Commission p.57).

The community college was not able to count as heavily on tuition for the funding of its programs for several reasons. There was a tradition of small tuition in the two year college, the civil rights legislation of the 1960's funded the two year

college as a tool for expanding educational opportunity, and the communities they served demanded affordable educational opportunities. In spite of these considerations, the community college had to raise tuition in order to keep their doors open.

In fact, the net tuition price of the community college increased 194% from 1954 to 1970 (Carnagie Commission 1973 p.67).

Cost is an exceptionally difficult problem in the community college. The community college is a bona fide member of the American educational structure. Yet it has struggled for financial freedom and independence. The community colleges are the last chance for education for many Americans. The community

college must struggle more than traditional colleges because of their inherent responsibility as a model for educational equity.

The dilemma for these colleges has become one of efficiency versus equity. It has been argued that it is fiscally

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irresponsible to spend large amounts of money on people who barely struggled through high school. Yet, either to limit enrollment or increase admission standards, the community colleges are in direct opposition to the responsibility of the two year institution to further the cause of educational equity. The course of study that will be my focus for the next quarter centers around the question: How can the community and the two year college systems maximize the scarce resources to provide the most efficient and equitable education possible?

This is a question which strikes me as extremely timely and worthy of intense study. President Clinton has made the call for the community colleges to expand educational opportunities they

provide even farther. This raises troubling questions. Is it really possible to maintain an expansive educational agenda without demanding increases funding from federal, state and local governments? We shall see.