The Science of Language

Study guide for week 8:

The goals for this week are to: 1) examine the ways that languages change over time due to normal variation among speakers; 2) learn how to use comparative methodology to reconstruct the sound systems of historical languages; 3) explore some of the diversity of languages around the world; and 4) investigate the status of languages which are in danger of becoming extinct.

Readings:

Language Files: 12.1-12.12.
Pinker: chapter 8.

Exercises from the text:

Language Files: File 12.3, ex. 1-4; 12.5, ex. 1, 4 & 7; 12.9, ex. 1-2.

Additional exercises:

1. Try to read some of this text from Beowulf (late eighth century?).

Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum,
þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon,
hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.
Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum,
5
monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah,
egsode eorlas. Syððan ærest wearð
feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad,
weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah,
oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra
10
ofer hronrade hyran scolde,
gomban gyldan. þæt wæs god cyning!
Ðæm eafera wæs æfter cenned,
geong in geardum, þone god sende
folce to frofre; fyrenðearfe ongeat
15
þe hie ær drugon aldorlease
lange hwile. Him þæs liffrea,
wuldres wealdend, woroldare forgeaf;
Beowulf wæs breme (blæd wide sprang),
Scyldes eafera Scedelandum in.
20
Swa sceal geong guma gode gewyrcean,
fromum feohgiftum on fæder bearme,
þæt hine on ylde eft gewunigen
wilgesiþas, þonne wig cume,
leode gelæsten; lofdædum sceal
25
in mægþa gehwære man geþeon.
Him ða Scyld gewat to gescæphwile
felahror feran on frean wære.
Hi hyne þa ætbæron to brimes faroðe,
swæse gesiþas, swa he selfa bæd,
30
þenden wordum weold wine Scyldinga;
leof landfruma lange ahte.
þær æt hyðe stod hringedstefna,
isig ond utfus, æþelinges fær.
Aledon þa leofne þeoden,
35
beaga bryttan, on bearm scipes,
mærne be mæste. þær wæs madma fela
of feorwegum, frætwa, gelæded;
ne hyrde ic cymlicor ceol gegyrwan
hildewæpnum ond heaðowædum,
40
billum ond byrnum; him on bearme læg
madma mænigo, þa him mid scoldon
on flodes æht feor gewitan.
Nalæs hi hine læssan lacum teodan,
þeodgestreonum, þon þa dydon

What looks like modern English? Could you understand some words or even phrases? After you become completely confused, go to the following website and get a translation into modern English.

http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~beowulf/main.html

2. Each column below represents the numbers 1-10 in a different language. Read the words and decide which languages you think belong to a common family. Then decide which two languages are the most closely related.

3. Look up the word window. You’ll find that it comes from the Middle English (ME) windowe, which came from the Old Norse (ON) vindauga, which itself was formed from the two Old Norse words vindr, which meant “wind,” and auga, which meant “eye.” So window once meant “wind-eye,” a poetic description appropriately suggesting a window’s function of letting in both air and light.

Find the history of other words. Look up words you’ve been curious about, or browse through the dictionary until a word catches your interest. Below are some words that have interesting histories.

a. book
b. poet
c. hansome
d. see
e. money
f. husband
g. stop
h. physics
i. mathematical

Here are some of the dictionary’s most common abbreviations that might come in handy:

OE – Old English, 7th to 12th centuries
ME – Middle English, 12th to 15th centuries
ON – Old Norse
OHG – Old High German
MF – Middle French
L – Latin
GK – Greek
Skt - Sanskrit

4. Each of the following English words at one time had a meaning that was quite different from its current meaning. Identify each of these semantic changes as an instance of reduction (narrowing), expansion (broadening), elevations or degradation.

a. moody “brave”
b. uncouth “unknown”
c. aunt “father’s sister”
d. butcher “one who slaughters goats”
e. witch “male or female sorcerer”
f. sly “skillful”
g. accident “an event”
h. argue “make clear”
i. carry “transport by cart”
j. grumble “murmur, make low sounds”
k. shrewd “depraved, wicked”
l. praise “set a value on”
m. ordeal “trial by torture”
n. picture “a painted likeness”
o. seduce “persuade someone to desert his or her duty”
p. box “a small container made of boxwood”
q. baggage “a worthless person”

Essential concepts:

a. synchronic
b. diachronic
c. PIE
d. comparative method
e. conditioned sound change
f. unconditioned sound change
g. cognate