Plant
Study 
Willow
Salix spp.
Willow is an ancient plant that has been valued as medicine since 500b.c, and has accumulated lore all over the world. There are many species of willow occurring in North America, Eurasia, and North Africa.
Willows occur as both tree and shrub, with heights ranging from 1 inch to 100 feet or more. They have alternate arrangements and mostly narrow, long leaves with short stems. Flowers on willows generally appear before or at the same time as the leaves, and turn to capsulated fruits. The bark and twigs vary with species.
Medicinally, the bark of the willow tree is used. The most commonly named for medicinal usage are white willow (Salix alba) and black willow (Salix nigra). However, most folk medicine makes no distinction in medicinal values of different species. White willow bark is best known as the original inspiration and constituent of aspirin, though its modern form is completely chemically synthesized. Willow is most often indicated for headaches, fevers, arthritis, tendonitis, back pain, gout, and nearly every other musculoskeletal ache and pain. It is also indicated for various nervous and reproductive system ailments like sciatica, spermatorrhea, and ovarian pain. White willow is said to have a cooling energy that clears excess fire, stabilizes air, and reduces water. The bark is stripped vertically in small amounts from 2-3 year old trees then dried. It is then made into a decoction, tincture, extract, capsule, cream, ointment, compress, or can be used in a bath.
White willow is said to be counter-indicated with some blood thinning and diuretic pharmaceuticals and to have not been safely established for pregnant or nursing women or those with severe liver or kidney disease. One source indicated potential risk to children because of aspirin’s risk and willows similarity to aspirin. However, another source from a respected herbalist states that the salicilin in willow is structurally different enough from its aspirin counterpart to not imitate some of its affects. No other source I referenced indicated any cautions when using willow.
Native American peoples have used the bark of black willows for feverish complaints. Willow bark has also been used in the Puget Sound area for twisting into rope, for nets, baskets, clothing, slings, and grey dye.
In lore, the willow tree is often an emblem of sadness. In Russia, the week leading up to Easter has been referred to as ‘willow week.’ Beneath a willow was where the ‘children of Israel’ sat and wept. The branches of weeping willow have also been worn as a crown by those forsaken in love.
Plant Monograph
Willow
Family Name: Willow/Salicaceae
Latin Names: Salix spp.
Common Names: Willow (see below)
Native American Names: none found
Related Species: S. alba (white willow), S. nigra & S. mrsinifolia (black willow), pussy willow, catkin willow, S. Caprea, S. fragilis, S. arctica (arctic willow), S. commutata (variable willow), S. hookeriana (hookers willow), S. Lucida (pacific willow), S. scouleriana (scoulers willow), S. sitchensis (sitka willow), and many more.
Body System Affiliations:
1.Musculoskeletal
2.Nervous
3.Reproductive
Botanical Description:
Habit: (S. spp.) Deciduous tree or shrub.
Size: (S. spp.) From less than 1 inch to 100 feet or more (10:374).
Arrangement: (S. spp.) Alternate
Leaves: (S. spp.) Narrow with short stems. In spring and early summer each leaf stem will grow 2 shiny, false leaves at its base (2:on-line). (S. alba) Slender, silvery green lance-shaped leaves (12:213). (S. arctica) Grayish green, oval, sparsely hairy on bottom (5:87). (S. hookeriana) Oval to egg shaped; 4-12cm long, 2-6cm wide; very hairy when young. (S. lucida) Lance shaped leaves tapering to long, sharp tip; young leaves are hairy, older leaves are not (5:88). (S. scouleriana) Broad, wider above mid-line then taper to stem; young leaves have dense hair covering, older have dark green coloring and hairs on top with some rust colored hairs underneith. (S. sitchensis) Broad, teardrop shaped leaves; top side is sparsely silky and bottom is satiny with flattened hairs; yellowish stalks (5:89).
Flowers: (S. lucida) Pale, hairy, yellow bracts, catkins appear with leaves (5:88). (S. sitchensis) Brown, hairy bracts; catkins appear with leaves (5:89). (S. spp.) “The individual female flower has a single 1-celled ovary, sessile or borne on a short pedicel, subtended by a single small scale; in the axil of the pedicel is a small ‘ventral gland,’ and in some species there is a second gland dorsal to the pedicel, called a ‘dorsal gland.’…Stigmas short to long, entire to divided. Pollination can occur by wind, but often insects as bees collect and move the pollen from flower to flower. The ripened ovary forms a capsule which splits down two sides from the apex, freeing large numbers of small seeds, wind-borne by a mass of silky-down” (2:on-line).
Fruit: (S. spp.) Capsules. (S. hookeriana) Slightly hairy or smooth capsules to 8mm (5:88). (S. sitchensis) Silky capsules 3-5mm (5:89).
Bark: (S. alba) The outer bark has a glossy surface in young plants that wrinkles and dulls as it ages. It is made of thin, channeled pieces about 2cm wide and 2mm thick. It is greenish/grayish brown on the outside, while the inside is striated, fibrous, and yellow/reddish brown. The bark tastes bitter and has a faint odor (9:283). (S. lucida) Fissured bark turning yellowish brown in elder trees (5:88).
Twigs: (S. nigra) Dark brown, ridged, reddish to orange (10:314). (S. lucida) Glossy, hairless, brittle at base (5:88). (S. scouleriana) Velvety twigs (5:89).
Underground Parts: (S. spp.) Roots
Ecology:
Habitat: (S. spp.) Willows generally prefer moist, open conditions such as river banks, roadsides, open forests, or wet meadows, though some species can thrive in many conditions. (S. alba) Wet ground by rivers (4:238). Also, grows by streams, but not in waterlogged soil (3:on-line). (S.lucida) Sea level to mid-elevated moist areas (5:88).
(S. sitchensis) Low to middle elevations, forest edges, lakeshores, wetland boundaries and other moist areas (5:89).
Range: (S. alba) England, North Africa, parts of Asia (3:on-line). Europe to Central Asia and North Africa (4:238).
Native Where: (S. alba) Britain, Central and Southern Europe (9:283).
Ecological Relationships: (S. alba) Many animals browse the shoots and leaves, particularly horses (3:on-line). Often exist by alder and downy birch (3:on-line).
Propagation:
Technique: Using shoots, insert short length into soil leaving a bud or two above ground (3:on-line). Propagated using hardwood cuttings in winter or greenwood in spring (12:213).
Harvest:
Plant Part: Bark
Season of Harvest: Spring, before flowering.
Method of Harvest: Make a thin cut (no more than ¼ circumference of the tree) with a hatchet near the base of the tree. Then, carefully peel upward to remove bark.
Ecological Considerations of Harvest: Harvest from 2-3 year old trees (12:213). Harvesting needs to be done in small vertical strips to protect the plant. Never harvest in a circle around the trunk, as it will disrupt nutrient flow.
Cultural Considerations of Harvest: none found
Cautions: (see ecological considerations)
Indigenous and Non-Western Use/Significance/Relationships:
Food:
Indigenous Group: Alaska Natives
Species: S. alaxensis, feltleaf willow
Use: Young leaves and shoots used as a source of vitamin C. The inner bark has been eaten raw with sugar and seal oil in winter.
Indigenous Group: Eskimo, Inupiat
Species: S. alaxensis, feltleaf willow
Use: Leaf buds and small green leaves have been eaten, new shoots peeled and eaten, juice sucked from stem, flowers sucked for nectar by children, juicy cambium with cucumber/watermelon taste eaten (6:on-line).
Materials/Technology:
Indigenous Group: Cheyenne
Species: Salix amygdaloides, peachleaf willow
Use: Branches used in building sweat lodges, making meat drying racks; young twigs made into baskets and used to carry children; sticks used to take hair from hides; slender shoots are bound and used as backrests; wood used in mattresses, in keeping above ground beds, and for drums; charcoal used as black paint for the ‘sun dancers.’
Indigenous Group: Gosiute, Ute
Species: Salix amygdaloides, peachleaf willow
Use: Wood used in baskets. Gosiute also used for fish weirs and water jugs (6:on-line).
Other: The Washington state ethnobotany website states that willow bark ‘was’ used for the following reasons, most likely indicating indigenous use, though specific groups were not named.
Willow bark has been used to make ropes for fishing lines and nets such as gill-nets, reef-nets, purse-nets, bagnets and duck-nets. The bark was has also been used to make ‘shingle’ baskets, slings, and harpoon lines. Also, sitka willow bark has been used to dye mountain goat wool, grey
(2:on-line).
Medicine:
Indigenous Group: Cherokee
Species: Salix alba, white willow
Part Used: Bark
Medicinal Actions: febrifuge, antidiarrheal, dermatological aid.
Indications: fever, diarrhea, slow hair growth, hoarseness, lost voice, ‘wind’ conditions, tonic.
Body System Associations: skin, respiratory, digestive.
Preparation: decoction, poultice, infusion, chew.
Indigenous Group: Cheyenne
Species: Salix amygdaloides, peachleaf willow
Part Used: Bark
Medicinal Actions: antidiarrheal, dermatological aid, gastrointestinal aid, hemostat.
Indications: diarrhea, bleeding cuts, stomach ailments.
Body System Associations: skin, digestive.
Preparation: poultice, infusion.
Indigenous Group: Micmac
Species: Salix nigra, black willow
Part Used: roots, bruised leaves, spirits.
Medicinal Actions: Orthopedic aid, dermatological aid.
Indications: bruises, strains, broken bones.
Body System Associations: skin, skeletal.
Preparation: bruised leaves and scraped roots applied as a compress.
Indigenous Group: Navajo
Species: Salix lucida, pacific willow
Part Used: leaves, stem
Medicinal Actions: disinfectant, emetic, pediatric aid.
Indications: ‘lightning infection’ in babies
Body System Associations: digestive
Preparation: For ‘lightning infection,’ the painted internode of stem is held over the baby; a decoction of leaves is used as a ceremonial emetic (6:on-line).
Other:
Indigenous Group: Alaska ‘Other’
Species: S. alaxensis, feltleaf willow
Use: Gathered in late summer, burnt, then ashes added to snuff and chewing tobacco (6:on-line).
Western (European-American) Uses/Relationships:
Food: none found
Materials/Technology: (S. nigra) Bark used in many farm implements, household items and the leather tanning industry (10:376).
Medicine:
Part Used: Bark, inner bark (8:137).
Medicinal Actions: (S. alba) Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, tonic (7:250); nervine, blood purifying, anti-bacterial, astringent (8:136); febrifuge (9:283).
(S. nigra) aphrodisiac, tonic, astringent, detergent, anti-periodic (10:376).
Indications: (S. alba) Migraine headaches, back pain, bursitis, dysmenorrhea, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, tendonitis, tension headaches, musculoskeletal pain (1:online); gout, fevers, aches and pains of all kinds (7:250); congestion, stagnation (8:136); sciatica (9:283); cuts, burns, skin complaints (12:153).
(S. nigra) spermatorrhea, nocturnal emissions, ovarian pain (10:375).
Body System Associations: Musculoskeletal, nervous, reproductive
Constituents: (S. spp.) Concentrations depend on species: phenolic
glycosides; salicin, picin and triandrin with esters of salicylic acid and saicyl alcohol; acetylated salicin, salicortin and salireposide; also tannins, catechin, p-coumaric acid, flavanoids.
Harvest: Bark is stripped in thin vertical pieces.
Storage: Dark, cool, dry places.
Applications: Decoction, tincture, capsule, cream, extracts, poultice, compress, bath, ointment.
Preparation: Decoction: 1-2 tsp. dried bark into 1 cup water, bring to boil, simmer 10-15 minutes.
Tincture: 1:5 herb to menstruum ratio in 25% alcohol to water content.
Fluid Extract: 1:1 herb to menstruum ratio in 25% ethanol to water solution (11:579).
Pharmacy: (S. alba) “Standardized willow bark extracts should provide 120 to 240 mg of salicin daily” (1:online). Decoction: 1-2tsp, 3x/day (11:579). Tincture: 1-2 ml, 3x/day (7:250); 3-6ml 3x/day (11:579)
Fluid Extract: 1-2 ml, 3x/day (11:579).
Other: S. alba is said to have a cooling energy that clears an excess of fire, stabilizes air, and reduces water (8:136).
Cautions: (S. alba) Counter-indicated with blood thinning pharmaceuticals such as: Coumadin (warfarin), heparin, Plavix (clopidogrel), Ticlid (ticlopidine), Trental (pentoxifylline), or aspirin; methotrexate; metoclopramide; Dilantin (phenytoin); sulfonamide drugs; spironolactone and other potassium-sparing diuretics; or the antiseizure drug valproic acid (1:on-line).
“Willow doesn't impair blood coagulation to the same extent as aspirin, and also doesn't appear to significantly irritate the stomach. Nonetheless, it seems reasonable to suppose that if it is used over the long term or in high doses willow could still cause the side effects associated with aspirin. All the risks of aspirin therapy potentially apply. For this reason, white willow should not be given to children, due to the risk of Reye's syndrome. It should also not be used by people with aspirin allergies, bleeding disorders, or kidney disease…Safety in pregnant or nursing women, or those with severe liver or kidney disease, has not been established” (1:on-line).
It has been said that the bark of willow should be taken in small doses by those with a weak stomach (as with children) as it can be irritating to the stomach lining.
Note: No other herbal references indicated any cautions, and one stated: “The ESCOP monograph notes no interactions with willow, and states that irreversible inhibition of platelet aggregation by aspirin cannot be induced by the structurally different salicin present in willow” (11:579).
Essential Oil Information: none found.
Personal Experience:
Medicine:
Part Used: Bark of S. alba
Medicinal Actions: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, tonic (7:250); nervine, blood purifying, anti-bacterial, astringent (8:136); feberfuge (9:283).
Indications: Migraine headaches, back pain, bursitis, dysmenorrhea, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, tendonitis, tension headaches, musculoskeletal pain (1:online); gout, fevers, aches and pains of all kinds (7:250); congestion, stagnation (8:136); sciatica (9:283); cuts, burns, skin complaints (12:153).
Body System Associations: Musculoskeletal, nervous, reproductive.
Constituents: (S. spp.) Concentrations depend on species: phenolic
glycosides; salicin, picin and triandrin with esters of salicylic acid and saicyl alcohol; acetylated salicin, salicortin and salireposide; also tannins, catechin, p-coumaric acid, flavanoids.
Usage:
Application: folk decoction
Preparation: approx. 2tbs boiled in 2 cups water for approx. 15 minutes.
Pharmacy: Sipped for approx. 30 mins.
Reason/Purpose: Headache
Experience: I and another person took this tea when we had headaches. After drinking the tea we noticed a decrease in intensity of our headaches.
Cautions based on experience: None. I can have a tendency to a weak stomach and had no irritation.
Other: The herbalist who sold it to me warned me of the unpleasant taste, but I find it pleasant and earthy.
Other Notes of Interest: Since 500 B.C. Willow has been used in China to relieve pain and fever, but in Europe it was used for relieving vomiting, removing warts, and suppressing sexual desire (1:on-line).
In 1928, European chemist extracted the salicin from white willow bark, and purified it into salicylic acid. Later, chemists modified salicin from the herb meadowsweet to create acetylsalicylic acid or aspirin (1:on-line).
Willow is an ancient flowering plant. Fossils have been found dating back to the Cretaceous (10:374).
Willow is referred to in many areas in the Bible: Psalm 137:2, Isaiah 15:7, Job 40:22, Leviticus 23:40, Ezekiel 17:5 (9:283).
Cautions: (S. alba) Counter-indicated with blood thinning pharmaceuticals such as: Coumadin (warfarin), heparin, Plavix (clopidogrel), Ticlid (ticlopidine), Trental (pentoxifylline), or aspirin; methotrexate; metoclopramide; Dilantin (phenytoin); sulfonamide drugs; spironolactone and other potassium-sparing diuretics; or the antiseizure drug valproic acid (1:on-line).
“Willow doesn't impair blood coagulation to the same extent as aspirin, and also doesn't appear to significantly irritate the stomach. Nonetheless, it seems reasonable to suppose that if it is used over the long term or in high doses willow could still cause the side effects associated with aspirin. All the risks of aspirin therapy potentially apply. For this reason, white willow should not be given to children, due to the risk of Reye's syndrome. It should also not be used by people with aspirin allergies, bleeding disorders, or kidney disease…Safety in pregnant or nursing women, or those with severe liver or kidney disease, has not been established” (1:on-line).
It has been said that the bark of willow should be taken in small doses by those with a weak stomach (as with children) as it can be irritating to the stomach lining.
Note: No other herbal references indicated any cautions, and one stated: “The ESCOP monograph notes no interactions with willow, and states that irreversible inhibition of platelet aggregation by aspirin cannot be induced by the structurally different salicin present in willow” (11:579).
Research: (S. alba) According to Swedish Medical Center, one placebo-controlled, double-blind trial indicated effectiveness for back pain. Another trial found it useful for osteoarthritis, but two more recent studies did not find it useful for rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis. (1:on-line)
Drawings, Photographs or Pressings
See: Drawing of S. alba
Children’s Worksheet
References Cited:
1. Author Unknown. Swedish Medical Center. Online at http://www.swedish.org/110950.cfm. 2006. Visited 02-15-2006.
2. Author Unknown. Washington State Department of Transportation. Online at http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/environment/culres/ethbot/q-s/Salix.htm.Visited 02-15-2006.
3. Unsworth, Bill. British-Trees. Online at http://www.british-trees.com/guide/whitewillow.htm. 1994. Visited 02-15-2006.
4. Brown, Deni. Herbal, the Essential Guide to Herbs for Living. London: Pavillion Books ltd., 2001.
5. Mackinnon, Andy, and Jim Pojar. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Vancouver, British Columbia: Ministry of Forests and Lone Pine Publishing, 2004.
6. Moerman, Daniel E. Native American Ethnobotany Database. Aug 1999. Online at http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb/. Visited03-08-06.
7. Hoffman, David. An Elders Herbal. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 1993.
8. Pitman, Vicki. Herbal Medicine, The Use of Herbs for Health and Healing. Australia: Element Books Limited, 1994.
9. Wren, R.C. Potter’s New Cyclopaedis of Botanical Drugs and Preparations. England: C.W. Daniel Company Limited, 1989.
10. Hutchens, Alma R. Indian Herbology of North America. Kumbakonam, S. India:Homeopathy Press, 1969.
11. Hoffman, David. Medical Herbalism. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 2003.
12. Houdret, Jessica. Practical Herb Garden. London: Holmes House, 2004.
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Winter - 2006
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